Map shows the location of permanent Antarctic research stations
Countries that have one or more stations in Antarctica
A number of governments maintain permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the bases set up in the Arctic (see Drifting ice station ), the research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rock or on ice that is (for practical purposes) fixed in place.
Many of the stations are staffed around the year. A total of 30 countries (as of October 2006), all signatories to the Antarctic Treaty , operate seasonal (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent. The population of people performing and supporting scientific research on the continent and nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 during the summer season to 1,000 during winter (June).[ 1] In addition to these permanent stations, approximately 30 field camps are established each summer to support specific projects.[ 2] [dubious – discuss ]
History [ edit ]
First base [ edit ]
During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century, the first bases on the continent were established. In 1903, Dr William S. Bruce 's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition set off to Antarctica, with one of its aims to establish a meteorological station in the area.
After the expedition failed to find land, Bruce decided to head back to the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there.[ 3] The islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological station, and their relative proximity to the South American mainland allowed a permanent station to be established. Bruce instituted a comprehensive programme of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens.[ 3]
The major task completed during this time was the construction of a stone building, christened "Omond House".[ 5] This was to act as living accommodation for the parties that would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The building was constructed from local materials using the dry stone method, with a roof improvised from wood and canvas sheeting. The completed house was 20 feet by 20 feet square (6m × 6m), with two windows, fitted as quarters for six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."[ 6]
Bruce later offered to Argentina the transfer of the station and instruments on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.[ 7] Bruce informed the British officer William Haggard of his intentions in December 1903, and Haggard ratified the terms of Bruce proposition.[ 8]
The Scotia sailed back for Laurie Island on 14 January 1904 carrying on board Argentinean officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on South Orkney Islands.
WWII and postwar expansion [ edit ]
Little happened for the following forty years until the Second World War , when the British launched Operation Tabarin in 1943, to establish a presence on the continent. The chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.
Prior to the start of the war, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim, see New Swabia .[ 9] Led by Lieutenant James Marr , the 14-strong team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and Fitzroy , on Saturday January 29, 1944. Marr had accompanied the British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921 - 1922.
Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island , where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land . A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. These bases were the first ever to be constructed on the mainland Antarctica.[ 10]
The Operation provoked a massive expansion in international activity after the war. Chile organized its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48. Among other accomplishments, it brought the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla to personally inaugurate one of its bases, thereby becoming the first head of state to set foot on the continent.[ 11] Signy Research Station (UK) was established in 1947, Australia's Mawson Station in 1954, Dumont d'Urville Station was the first French station in 1956. In the same year McMurdo Station was built by the United States and the Mirny Station was established by the Soviet Union .
Research stations [ edit ]
Base
Open
Countries
Established
Operator
Situation
Coordinates
Time zone
Aboa
Summer
Finland
1989
Finnish Antarctic Research Program
Queen Maud Land
73°03′S 13°25′W / 73.050°S 13.417°W / -73.050; -13.417 (Aboa (Finland) )
Almirante Brown Antarctic Base
Summer
Argentina
1951
Argentine Antarctic Institute
Antarctic Peninsula
64°53′43.1″S 62°52′13.8″W / 64.895306°S 62.870500°W / -64.895306; -62.870500 (Almirante Brown Antarctic Base (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
Permanent
United States
1957
United States Antarctic Program
Geographical South Pole
90°S 0°E / 90°S 0°E / -90; 0 (Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station (USA) )
x UTC+12*
Artigas Base
Permanent
Uruguay
1984
Uruguayan Antarctic Institute
King George Island
62°11′3.4″S 58°54′11.9″W / 62.184278°S 58.903306°W / -62.184278; -58.903306 (Artigas Base (Uruguay) )
i UTC−3
Asuka Station
Summer
Japan
1985
National Institute of Polar Research
unmanned observation
Queen Maud Land
71°31′34″S 24°08′17″E / 71.52611°S 24.13806°E / -71.52611; 24.13806 (Asuka Station (Japan) )
Belgrano II
Permanent
Argentina
1979
Argentine Antarctic Institute
Coats Land
77°52′27.8″S 34°37′14.9″W / 77.874389°S 34.620806°W / -77.874389; -34.620806 (General Belgrano II (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
Bellingshausen Station
Permanent
Russia
1968
Russian Antarctic Expedition
King George Island
62°11′47″S 58°57′39″W / 62.19639°S 58.96083°W / -62.19639; -58.96083 (Bellingshausen Station (Russia) )
Bernardo O'Higgins Station
Permanent
Chile
Germany
1948
1991
Chilean Army Logistics
German Aerospace Center
Antarctic Peninsula
63°19′15″S 57°53′56.2″W / 63.32083°S 57.898944°W / -63.32083; -57.898944 (Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme Station (Chile) )
h UTC−3
Bharati
Permanent
India
2012
Indian Antarctic Program
Larsemann Hills
69°24′28″S 76°11′14″E / 69.40778°S 76.18722°E / -69.40778; 76.18722 (Bharathi Station (India) )
Byrd Station
Summer
United States
1957
United States Antarctic Program
Marie Byrd Land
80°01′00″S 119°32′00″W / 80.01667°S 119.53333°W / -80.01667; -119.53333 (Byrd Station (USA) )
Captain Arturo Prat Base
Permanent
Chile
1947
Chilean Navy
Greenwich Island
62°28′45″S 59°39′51″W / 62.47917°S 59.66417°W / -62.47917; -59.66417 (Captain Arturo Prat Base (Chile) )
h UTC−3
Casey Station
Permanent
Australia
1957
Australian Antarctic Division
Vincennes Bay
66°16′55.6″S 110°31′31.9″E / 66.282111°S 110.525528°E / -66.282111; 110.525528 (Casey Station (Australia) )
t UTC+8
Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station
Permanent
Brazil
1984
Brazilian Antarctic Program
King George Island
62°05′00″S 58°23′28.2″W / 62.08333°S 58.391167°W / -62.08333; -58.391167 (Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Base (Brazil) )
i UTC−3
Concordia Station
Permanent
Italy
France
2005
Concordia Station is a joint French-Italian research facility, managed by PNRA (National Antarctic Research Program of Italy) and IPEV (Institut Polaire Français Paul Émile Victor)
research topics: human biology, geomagnetic observations, geodesy, glaciology, meteorological observations, astronomy, seismology and environmental monitoring [ 12] [ 13] [ 14] [ 15]
Dome C , Antarctic Plateau
75°06′00″S 123°20′00″E / 75.10000°S 123.33333°E / -75.10000; 123.33333 (Concordia Station (Italy-France) )
s UTC+10
Dakshin Gangotri
Permanent
India
1983
Indian Antarctic Program
Dakshin Gangotri Glacier near Schirmacher Oasis
70°05′37″S 12°00′00″E / 70.09361°S 12.00000°E / -70.09361; 12.00000 (Dakshin Gangotri (India) )
Davis Station
Permanent
Australia
1957
Australian Antarctic Division
Princess Elizabeth Land
68°34′35.3″S 77°58′9.2″E / 68.576472°S 77.969222°E / -68.576472; 77.969222 (Davis Station (Australia) )
s UTC+7
Dome Fuji Station
Summer
Japan
1995
National Institute of Polar Research
Queen Maud Land
77°19′01″S 39°42′12″E / 77.31694°S 39.70333°E / -77.31694; 39.70333 (Dome Fuji Station (Japan) )
Druzhnaya 4
Summer
Russia
1987-1991
(re-opening in 1995)
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Princess Elizabeth Land
69°44′0.9″S 73°42′0.6″E / 69.733583°S 73.700167°E / -69.733583; 73.700167 (Druzhnaya 4 Station (Russia) )
Dumont d'Urville Station
Permanent
France
1956
IPEV (Institut Polaire Français Paul Émile Victor)
Adélie Land
66°39′47.3″S 140°00′5.3″E / 66.663139°S 140.001472°E / -66.663139; 140.001472 (Dumont d'Urville Station (France) )
v UTC+10
Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva and Villa Las Estrellas
Permanent
Chile
1969
Chilean Air Force
King George Island
62°11.7′S 58°58.7′W / 62.1950°S 58.9783°W / -62.1950; -58.9783 (Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva (Chile) )
h UTC−3
Esperanza Base
Permanent
Argentina
1975
Argentine Antarctic Institute
Hope Bay
63°23′50.3″S 56°59′49.3″W / 63.397306°S 56.997028°W / -63.397306; -56.997028 (Esperanza Base (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
Gabriel de Castilla Station
Summer
Spain
1989
CSIC
Marine biology [ 16]
Deception Island
62°58′40.5″S 60°33′38.4″W / 62.977917°S 60.560667°W / -62.977917; -60.560667 (Gabriel de Castilla Spanish Antarctic Station (Spain) )
Gonzalez Videla Station
Summer
Chile
1951
Chilean Air Force
Paradise Bay, Water Boat Point.
64°49′24″S 62°51′29″W / 64.82333°S 62.85806°W / -64.82333; -62.85806 (Gonzalez Videla Station (Chile) )
Great Wall Station
Permanent
China
1985
Polar Research Institute of China
King George Island
62°13′02″S 58°57′41.5″W / 62.21722°S 58.961528°W / -62.21722; -58.961528 (Great Wall Station (China) )
Halley Research Station
Permanent
United Kingdom
1956
British Antarctic Survey [ 17]
Brunt Ice Shelf
75°35′00″S 26°34′00″W / 75.58333°S 26.56667°W / -75.58333; -26.56667 (Halley Research Station (UK) )
Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station
Permanent
Poland
1977
Polish Academy of Sciences
King George Island
62°09′0.14″S 058°28′2.1″W / 62.1500389°S 58.467250°W / -62.1500389; -58.467250 (Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station (Poland) )
Jang Bogo Station
Permanent
South Korea
2014
Korea Antarctic Research Program
Terra Nova Bay
74°37′0″S 164°12′5″E / 74.61667°S 164.20139°E / -74.61667; 164.20139 (Jang Bogo Science Station (South Korea) )
UTC+11
Jinnah Antarctic Station
Summer
Pakistan
1991
Pakistan Antarctic Programme
Sør Rondane Mountains , Queen Maud Land
70°24′S 25°45′E / 70.400°S 25.750°E / -70.400; 25.750 (Jinnah Antarctic Station (Pakistan) )
Juan Carlos I Station
Summer
Spain
1988
CSIC
Laboratory, investigation and meteorogical station.[ 18]
South Bay , Livingston Island
62°39′45.9″S 60°23′25.3″W / 62.662750°S 60.390361°W / -62.662750; -60.390361 (Juan Carlos I Base (Spain) )
Jubany
Permanent
Argentina
1953
Argentine Antarctic Institute
King George Island
62°14′16.7″S 58°40′0.2″W / 62.237972°S 58.666722°W / -62.237972; -58.666722 (Jubany (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
King Sejong Station
Permanent
South Korea
1988
Korea Antarctic Research Program
King George Island
62°13′23.2″S 58°47′13.4″W / 62.223111°S 58.787056°W / -62.223111; -58.787056 (King Sejong Station (South Korea) )
UTC−3
Kohnen Station
Summer
Germany
2001
Alfred Wegener Institute
Queen Maud Land
75°00′S 00°04′E / 75.000°S 0.067°E / -75.000; 0.067 (Kohnen-Station (Germany) )
Kunlun Station
Summer
China
2009
Polar Research Institute of China
Dome A
80°25′01″S 77°06′58″E / 80.41694°S 77.11611°E / -80.41694; 77.11611 (Kunlun Station (China) )
Law-Racoviță Station
Permanent
Romania
1986
Romanian Polar Research Institute
Larsemann Hills , Princess Elizabeth Land
69°23′18.9″S 76°22′50.75″E / 69.388583°S 76.3807639°E / -69.388583; 76.3807639 (Law-Racoviţă Station (Romania) )
Leningradskaya Station
Summer
Russia
1971-1991
(re-opening in 2007-2008)
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Oates Coast , Victoria Land
69°30′00″S 159°23′00″E / 69.50000°S 159.38333°E / -69.50000; 159.38333 (Leningradskaya Station (Russia) )
Machu Picchu Research Station
Summer
Peru
1989
Peruvian Antarctic Institute (INANPE) [ 19]
Admiralty Bay , King George Island
62°05′29.9″S 58°28′15.4″W / 62.091639°S 58.470944°W / -62.091639; -58.470944 (Machu Picchu Research Station (Peru) )
Maitri Station
Permanent
India
1989
Indian Antarctic Program
Schirmacher Oasis
70°45′57.7″S 11°43′56.2″E / 70.766028°S 11.732278°E / -70.766028; 11.732278 (Maitri Station (India) )
Maldonado Base
Summer
Ecuador
1990
Ecuadorian Antarctic Institute
Greenwich Island
62°26′56.6″S 59°44′29″W / 62.449056°S 59.74139°W / -62.449056; -59.74139 (Maldonado Base (Ecuador) )
Marambio Base
Permanent
Argentina
1969
Argentine Antarctic Institute
Seymour-Marambio Island
64°14′27.1″S 56°37′26.7″W / 64.240861°S 56.624083°W / -64.240861; -56.624083 (Marambio Base (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
Mario Zucchelli Station
Permanent
Italy
1986
National Antarctic Research Program (PNRA)
with the collaboration of ENEA and CNR
research topics: offshore marine biology, terrestrial biology, oceanography, geomagnetic observations, geodesy, onshore geology, glaciology, meteorological observations, ionospheric/auroral observations, cosmic ray observations, seismology and environmental monitoring [ 20] [ 21] [ 22]
Terra Nova Bay, Ross Sea
74°41′39.9″S 164°06′46.5″E / 74.694417°S 164.112917°E / -74.694417; 164.112917 (Mario Zucchelli Station (Italy) )
x UTC+12
Mawson Station
Permanent
Australia
1954
Australian Antarctic Division
Mac Robertson Land
67°36′10.1″S 62°52′22.8″E / 67.602806°S 62.873000°E / -67.602806; 62.873000 (Mawson Station (Australia) )
r UTC+6
McMurdo Station
Permanent
United States
1956
United States Antarctic Program
Ross Island
77°50′43.4″S 166°40′11.2″E / 77.845389°S 166.669778°E / -77.845389; 166.669778 (McMurdo Station (USA) )
x UTC+12*
Mendel Polar Station
Summer
Czech Republic
2006
Masaryk University
biological, geological and climate research
James Ross Island
63°48′6.5″S 57°53′7.9″W / 63.801806°S 57.885528°W / -63.801806; -57.885528 (Mendel Polar Station (Czech Republic) )
Mirny Station
Permanent
Russia
1956
Russian Antarctic Expedition
glaciology, seismology, meteorology, polar lights, cosmic radiation, and marine biology
Davis Sea
66°33′10.4″S 93°00′34.8″E / 66.552889°S 93.009667°E / -66.552889; 93.009667 (Mirny Station (Russia) )
Mizuho Station
Summer
Japan
1970
National Institute of Polar Research
Transshipment station
-
70°41′53″S 44°19′54″E / 70.69806°S 44.33167°E / -70.69806; 44.33167 (Mizuho Station (Japan) )
Molodyozhnaya Station
Summer
Russia
Belarus
1962-1990
(re-opening in 2007-2008)
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Meteorology [ 23]
67°39′57.0″S 45°50′33.2″E / 67.665833°S 45.842556°E / -67.665833; 45.842556 (Molodyozhnaya Station (Russia) )
Neumayer-Station III
Permanent
Germany
2009
Alfred Wegener Institute
Atka Bay
70°40′8″S 08°16′1.95″W / 70.66889°S 8.2672083°W / -70.66889; -8.2672083 (Neumayer-Station III (Germany) )
l UTC
Novolazarevskaya Station
Permanent
Russia
1961
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Queen Maud Land
70°49′21.1″S 11°38′40.1″E / 70.822528°S 11.644472°E / -70.822528; 11.644472 (Novolazarevskaya Station (Russia) )
Orcadas Base
Permanent
Argentina
1904
Argentine Antarctic Institute , Argentine Navy
Laurie Island , South Orkney Islands
60°44′15.5″S 44°44′22″W / 60.737639°S 44.73944°W / -60.737639; -44.73944 (Orcadas Base (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
Palmer Station
Permanent
United States
1968
United States Antarctic Program
Science labs, a dock and a helicopter pad.
Anvers Island
64°46′27.1″S 64°03′11″W / 64.774194°S 64.05306°W / -64.774194; -64.05306 (Palmer Station (USA) )
h UTC−3
Princess Elisabeth Base
Permanent
Belgium
2007
Belgium Polar Secretariat
Energy-passive research station.
Queen Maud Land
71°34′12″S 23°12′00″E / 71.57000°S 23.20000°E / -71.57000; 23.20000 (Princess Elisabeth Base (Belgium) )
Professor Julio Escudero Base
Permanent
Chile
1994
Chilean Antarctic Institute
King George Island
62°12′4.2″S 58°57′45.3″W / 62.201167°S 58.962583°W / -62.201167; -58.962583 (Professor Julio Escudero Base (Chile) )
h UTC−3
Progress Station
Summer
Russia
1988
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Prydz Bay
69°22′48.2″S 76°23′19.1″E / 69.380056°S 76.388639°E / -69.380056; 76.388639 (Progress Station (Russia) )
Rothera Research Station
Permanent
United Kingdom
1975
British Antarctic Survey
Adelaide Island
67°34′08.3″S 68°07′29.1″W / 67.568972°S 68.124750°W / -67.568972; -68.124750 (Rothera Research Station (UK) )
Russkaya Station
Summer
Russia
1980-1990
(re-opening in 2007-2008)
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Marie Byrd Land
74°46′00″S 136°52′00″W / 74.76667°S 136.86667°W / -74.76667; -136.86667 (Russkaya Station (Russia) )
f UTC−6[ 24]
San Martín Base
Permanent
Argentina
1951
Argentine Antarctic Institute
Barry Island
68°07′48.9″S 67°06′7.2″W / 68.130250°S 67.102000°W / -68.130250; -67.102000 (San Martín Base (Argentina) )
i UTC−3
SANAE IV (South African National Antarctic Expedition )
Permanent
South Africa
1962
(SANAE I)
South African National Antarctic Programme
Vesleskarvet in Queen Maud Land
71°40′21.9″S 2°50′24.9″W / 71.672750°S 2.840250°W / -71.672750; -2.840250 (SANAE IV (South Africa) )
i UTC+2
St. Kliment Ohridski Base
Permanent
Bulgaria
1988
Bulgarian Antarctic Institute
Biological research, laboratorial and meteorological measurements. First Eastern Orthodox chapel, St. Ivan Rilski
Emona Anchorage , Livingston Island
62°38′29″S 60°21′53″W / 62.64139°S 60.36472°W / -62.64139; -60.36472 (St. Kliment Ohridski Base (Bulgaria) )
Scott Base
Permanent
New Zealand
1957
Antarctica New Zealand
Antarctic physical environments, Southern Ocean and Antarctic ecosystems.
Ross Island
77°50′58.5″S 166°46′5.9″E / 77.849583°S 166.768306°E / -77.849583; 166.768306 (Scott Base (New Zealand) )
x UTC+12
Showa Station
Permanent
Japan
1957
National Institute of Polar Research
East Ongul Island
69°00′15.6″S 39°34′48.9″E / 69.004333°S 39.580250°E / -69.004333; 39.580250 (Showa Station (Japan) )
o UTC+3
Signy Research Station
Summer (Permanent 1947-1995)
United Kingdom
1947
British Antarctic Survey
Signy Island , South Orkney Islands
60°43′S 45°36′W / 60.717°S 45.600°W / -60.717; -45.600 (Signy Research Station (UK) )
Svea Research Station
Summer
Sweden
1988
Swedish Polar Research Secretariat
Queen Maud Land
74°34′34″S 11°13′31″W / 74.57611°S 11.22528°W / -74.57611; -11.22528 (Svea (Sweden) )
Taishan Station [ 25]
Summer
China
2014
Polar Research Institute of China
Princess Elizabeth Land
73°51′S 76°58′E / 73.850°S 76.967°E / -73.850; 76.967 (Taishan Station (China) )
Tor Station
Summer
Norway
1993
Norwegian Polar Institute
Queen Maud Land
71°53′20″S 05°09′30″E / 71.88889°S 5.15833°E / -71.88889; 5.15833 (Tor Station (Norway) )
Troll Station
Permanent
Norway
1990
Norwegian Polar Institute
Queen Maud Land
72°00′43.5″S 2°31′56″E / 72.012083°S 2.53222°E / -72.012083; 2.53222 (Troll Station (Norway) )
WAIS Divide Camp
Summer
United States
2005
United States Antarctic Program
Collect a deep ice core
West Antarctic Ice Sheet
79°28′S 112°04′W / 79.467°S 112.067°W / -79.467; -112.067 (WAIS Divide Camp )
Wasa Research Station
Summer
Sweden
1989
Swedish Polar Research Secretariat
Queen Maud Land
73°03′S 13°25′W / 73.050°S 13.417°W / -73.050; -13.417 (Wasa Station (Sweden) )
Vernadsky Research Base
Permanent
Ukraine
1994
National Antarctic Scientific Center
Galindez Island
65°14′44.6″S 64°15′26″W / 65.245722°S 64.25722°W / -65.245722; -64.25722 (Vernadsky Research Base (Ukraine) )
i UTC−3
Vostok Station
Permanent
Russia
1957
Russian Antarctic Expedition
Antarctic Ice Sheet
78°27′51.8″S 106°50′14″E / 78.464389°S 106.83722°E / -78.464389; 106.83722 (Vostok Station (Russia) )
r UTC+6
Zhongshan (Sun Yat-Sen) Station
Permanent
China
1989
Polar Research Institute of China
Larsemann Hills in Prydz Bay
69°22′24″S 76°22′12″E / 69.37333°S 76.37000°E / -69.37333; 76.37000 (Zhongshan (Sun Yat-Sen) Station (China) )
* Observes daylight saving time .
See also [ edit ]
References [ edit ]
^ Silja Vöneky ; Sange Addison-Agyei (May 2011). "Oxford Public International Law". Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law .
^ 4.0 Antarctica - Past and Present
^ a b Rudmose Brown, R. N.; Pirie, J. H.; Mossman, R. C. (2002). The Voyage of the Scotia . Edinburgh: Mercat Press. pp. 34–57. ISBN 1-84183-044-5 .
^ "Voyage of the Scotia 1902–04: The Antarctic" . Glasgow Digital Library. Retrieved 2008-06-30 .
^ Speak, Peter (2003). William Speirs Bruce: Polar Explorer and Scottish Nationalist . Edinburgh: NMS Publishing. p. 85. ISBN 1-901663-71-X .
^ Escude, Carlos; Cisneros, Andres. "Historia General de las Relaciones Exteriores de la Republica Argentina" (in Spanish). Retrieved July 6, 2012 .
^ Moneta, Jose Manuel (1954). Cuatro Años en las Orcadas del Sur (9th ed.). Ediciones Peuser.
^ "HMS Carnarvon Castle 1943" .
^ "Spirit of Scott 2012: Britain’s polar interests lie under a cloud" . The Daily Telegraph.
^ Antarctica and the Arctic: the complete encyclopedia, Volume 1, by David McGonigal, Lynn Woodworth, page 98
^ Polarnet. "Concordia Station (English Text - Polar Network-Cnr)" .
^ Concordia Station (English Text pdf - PNRA)
^ "Chronicles from Concordia Station (English Text - ESA)" . Chronicles from Concordia .
^ Concordia Station structure (IPEV)
^ BAE Gabriel de Castilla
^ "Halley VI Antarctic Research Station" . Archello.com .
^ SAS Juan Carlos I
^ [1]
^ Polarnet. "Mario Zucchelli Station on Polar Network - Cnr" .
^ A window on Antarctica (Italiantartide)
^ Mario Zucchelli Station on National Antarctic Programs
^ http://www.tvr.by/eng/news.asp?id=15751&date=17.03.2006%2019:31:00#1
^ "French Polar Team - R1 Russkaya Station / Antarctica" .
^ "中国正式建成南极泰山科考站" .
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