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LGBT rights by country or territory

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This article is about current LGBT rights around the world. For historical and current movements to further LGBT rights, see LGBT social movements.
Worldwide laws regarding same-sex intercourse/freedom of expression and association
Same-sex intercourse legal Same-sex intercourse illegal
  
 Marriage1
  
 Unenforced penalty
  
 Marriage recognized but not performed1
  
 Imprisonment
  
 Civil unions1
  
 Up to life in prison
  
 Unregistered cohabitation1
  
 Death penalty
  
 Same-sex unions not recognized
  
 Laws restricting freedom of expression and association
Rings indicate areas where local judges have granted/denied marriages or imposed the death penalty in a jurisdiction where that is not otherwise the law and/or areas with a case-by-case application.
1Some jurisdictions in this category may currently have other types of partnerships.
LGBT rights at the United Nations
  
 Support Countries which have signed a General Assembly declaration of LGBT rights and/or sponsored the Human Rights Council's 2011 resolution on LGBT rights (94 members).
  
 Oppose Countries which signed a 2008 statement opposing LGBT rights (initially 57 members, now 54 members).
  
 Neither Countries which, as regards the UN, have expressed neither official support nor opposition to LGBT rights (46 members).

Laws affecting lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people vary greatly by country or territory—everything from legal recognition of same-sex marriage or other types of partnerships, to the death penalty as punishment for same-sex romantic/sexual activity or identity.

LGBT rights are considered human rights by the Amnesty International[1] and civil rights by some.[2] LGBT rights laws include, but are not limited to, the following:

As of April 2016, nineteen countries, most of them located in the Americas and Western Europe,[f] recognize same-sex marriage and grant most of (if not all) the other rights listed above to its LGBT citizens.

Anti-LGBT laws include, but are not limited to, the following: sodomy laws penalizing consensual same-sex sexual activity with fines, jail terms, or the death penalty; anti-"lesbianism" laws; and higher ages of consent for same-sex activity.

In 2011, the United Nations Human Rights Council passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights, which was followed up with a report from the UN Human Rights Commission documenting violations of the rights of LGBT people, including hate crime, criminalization of homosexuality, and discrimination. Following up on the report, the UN Human Rights Commission urged all countries which had not yet done so to enact laws protecting basic LGBT rights.[3][4]

As of May 2016, 16 countries have an unequal age of consent law.[5]

As of May 2016, 73 countries as well as five sub-national jurisdictions[g] have laws criminalizing homosexuality,[5] with most of them located in Asia and Africa. In 2006 that number was 92.[5]

History of LGBT-related laws

See also: LGBT history, Timeline of LGBT history, LGBT social movements, History of homosexuality, and Sodomy law § History
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Ancient Celts

According to Aristotle, although most "belligerent nations" were strongly influenced by their women, the Celts were unusual because their men openly preferred male lovers (Politics II 1269b).[6] H. D. Rankin in Celts and the Classical World notes that "Athenaeus echoes this comment (603a) and so does Ammianus (30.9). It seems to be the general opinion of antiquity."[7] In book XIII of his Deipnosophists, the Roman Greek rhetorician and grammarian Athenaeus, repeating assertions made by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC (Bibliotheca historica 5:32), wrote that Celtic women were beautiful but that the men preferred to sleep together. Diodorus went further, stating that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". Rankin argues that the ultimate source of these assertions is likely to be Poseidonius and speculates that these authors may be recording male "bonding rituals".[8]

Ancient India

Throughout Hindu and Vedic texts there are many descriptions of saints, demigods, and even the Supreme Lord transcending gender norms and manifesting multiple combinations of sex and gender.[9] There are several instances in ancient Indian epic poetry of same sex depictions and unions by gods and goddesses. There are several stories depicting love between those of the same sex, especially among kings and queens. Kamasutra, the ancient Indian treatise on love talks about feelings for same sexes. Transsexuals are also venerated e.g. Lord Vishnu as Mohini and Lord Shiva as Ardhanarishwara (which means half woman).[10]

Ancient West Asia

Ancient Israel

The ancient Law of Moses (the Torah) forbids men lying with men (intercourse) in Leviticus 18 and gives a story of attempted homosexual rape in Genesis in the story of Sodom and Gomorrah, the cities being soon destroyed after that. The death penalty was prescribed. In Deuteronomy 22:5, cross-dressing is condemned as being "abominable".

Ancient Persia

In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early Safavid era (1501–1723), male houses of prostitution (amrad khane) were legally recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, such as Sa’di (d. 1291), Hafiz (d. 1389), and Jami (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with transgender young males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the köçeks and Sufi spiritual practices in which the practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of God.

Ancient Mesopotamia

Middle Assyrian Law Codes dating 1075 BC states: "If a man have intercourse with his brother-in-arms, they shall turn him into a eunuch."[11]

Ancient Rome

The "conquest mentality" of the ancient Romans shaped Roman homosexual practices.[12] In the Roman Republic, a citizen's political liberty was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion or use by others;[13] for the male citizen to submit his body to the giving of pleasure was considered servile.[14] As long as a man played the penetrative role, it was socially acceptable and considered natural for him to have same-sex relations, without a perceived loss of his masculinity or social standing.[15] The bodies of citizen youths were strictly off-limits, and the Lex Scantinia imposed penalites on those who committed a sex crime (stuprum) against a freeborn male minor.[16] Acceptable same-sex partners were males excluded from legal protections as citizens: slaves, male prostitutes, and the infames, entertainers or others who might be technically free but whose lifestyles set them outside the law.

"Homosexual" and "heterosexual" were thus not categories of Roman sexuality, and no words exist in Latin that would precisely translate these concepts.[17] A male citizen who willingly performed oral sex or received anal sex was disparaged, but there is only limited evidence of legal penalties against these men, who were presumably "homosexual" in the modern sense.[18] In courtroom and political rhetoric, charges of effeminacy and passive sexual behaviors were directed particularly at "democratic" politicians (populares) such as Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.[19]

Roman law addressed the rape of a male citizen as early as the 2nd century BC, when a ruling was issued in a case that may have involved a man of same-sex orientation. It was ruled that even a man who was "disreputable and questionable" had the same right as other citizens not to have his body subjected to forced sex.[20] A law probably dating to the dictatorship of Julius Caesar defined rape as forced sex against "boy, woman, or anyone"; the rapist was subject to execution, a rare penalty in Roman law.[21] A male classified as infamis, such as a prostitute or actor, could not as a matter of law be raped, nor could a slave, who was legally classified as property; the slave's owner, however, could prosecute the rapist for property damage.[22]

In the Roman army of the Republic, sex among fellow soldiers violated the decorum against intercourse with citizens and was subject to harsh penalties, including death,[23] as a violation of military discipline.[24] The Greek historian Polybius (2nd century BC) lists deserters, thieves, perjurers, and "those who in youth have abused their persons" as subject to the fustuarium, clubbing to death.[25] Ancient sources are most concerned with the effects of sexual harassment by officers, but the young soldier who brought an accusation against his superior needed to show that he had not willingly taken the passive role or prostituted himself.[26] Soldiers were free to have relations with their male slaves;[27] the use of a fellow citizen-soldier's body was prohibited, not homosexual behaviors per se.[28] By the late Republic and throughout the Imperial period, there is increasing evidence that men whose lifestyle marked them as "homosexual" in the modern sense served openly.[29]

Although Roman law did not recognize marriage between men, and in general Romans regarded marriage as a heterosexual union with the primary purpose of producing children, in the early Imperial period some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites. Juvenal remarks with disapproval that his friends often attended such ceremonies.[30] The emperor Nero had two marriages to men, once as the bride (with a freedman Pythagoras) and once as the groom. His consort Sporus appeared in public as Nero's wife wearing the regalia that was customary for the Roman empress.[31]

Apart from measures to protect the prerogatives of citizens, the prosecution of homosexuality as a general crime began in the 3rd century of the Christian era when male prostitution was banned by Philip the Arab. By the end of the 4th century, after the Roman Empire had come under Christian rule, passive homosexuality was punishable by burning.[32] "Death by sword" was the punishment for a "man coupling like a woman" under the Theodosian Code.[33] Under Justinian, all same-sex acts, passive or active, no matter who the partners, were declared contrary to nature and punishable by death.[34]

Congo

E. E. Evans-Pritchard recorded that in the past male Azande warriors in the northern Congo routinely took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older husbands. The practice had died out by the early 20th century, after Europeans had gained control of African countries, but was recounted to Evans-Pritchard by the elders to whom he spoke.[35]

Feudal Japan

In feudal Japan, homosexuality was recognized, between equals (bi-do), in terms of pederasty (wakashudo), and in terms of prostitution. The younger partner in a pederastic relationship often was expected to make the first move; the opposite was true in ancient Greece. In religious circles, same-sex love spread to the warrior (samurai) class, where it was customary for a boy in the wakashū age category to undergo training in the martial arts by apprenticing to a more experienced adult man. The man was permitted, if the boy agreed, to take the boy as his lover until he came of age; this relationship, often formalized in a "brotherhood contract",[36] was expected to be exclusive, with both partners swearing to take no other (male) lovers. The Samurai period was one in which homosexuality was seen as particularly positive. Later when Japanese society became pacified, the middle classes adopted many of the practices of the warrior class.

Lesotho

Anthropologists Stephen Murray and Will Roscoe reported that women in Lesotho engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships" called motsoalle.[37]

Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century. The Etoro and Marind-anim for example, even viewed heterosexuality as wasteful and celebrated homosexuality instead. They believed that in sharing semen, they are sharing their life force, yet women simply wasted this force any time they didn't get pregnant after sex. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty.[38]

Global LGBT Rights Maps

LGBT-related laws by country or territory

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

See also

Portal icon LGBT portal
Portal icon Human rights portal
Portal icon Geography portal

Notes

  1. ^ Excluding the Faroe Islands
  2. ^ Excluding Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten
  3. ^ Excluding Niue, Tokelau and the Cook Islands
  4. ^ Excluding Northern Ireland, the Crown dependencies and most British Overseas Territories. (Same-sex marriage is legal in the Pitcairn Islands).
  5. ^ Excluding most Native American tribes. (Same-sex marriage is legal in at least 24 of them). Application to American Samoa unclear.
  6. ^ Countries with same-sex marriage recognized nationwide are: Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Denmark,[a] France, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,[b] New Zealand,[c] Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom,[d] the United States [e] and Uruguay.
  7. ^ These five sub-national jurisdictions are: the provinces of Aceh and South Sumatra (Indonesia), the Cook Islands (New Zealand), Gaza (Palestine) and Marawi City (the Philippines).

References

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  19. ^ Catharine Edwards, The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 63–64.
  20. ^ As recorded in a fragment of the speech De Re Floria by Cato the Elder (frg. 57 Jordan = Aulus Gellius 9.12.7), noted and discussed by Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality," p. 561.
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  22. ^ Under the Lex Aquilia. See McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome, p. 314.
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  25. ^ Polybius, Histories 6.37.9 (translated as bastinado).
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  30. ^ Juvenal, Satire 2; Williams, Roman Homosexuality, p. 28.
  31. ^ Suetonius Life of Nero 28–29; Williams, Roman Homosexuality, p. 279ff.
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  33. ^ Codex Theodosianus 9.7.3 (4 December 342), introduced by the sons of Constantine in 342.
  34. ^ Groneberg, "Reasons for Homophobia," p. 193.
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  40. ^ (Spanish) Reglamento regulador del Registro de Uniones de Hecho
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  47. ^ (Spanish) REGLAMENTO REGULADOR DEL REGISTRO DE PAREJAS DE HECHO DE LA CIUDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MELILLA
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  70. ^ Law Reform (2000) Act
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  73. ^ THE COMMON-LAW PARTNERS' PROPERTY AND RELATED AMENDMENTS ACT
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  355. ^ Faroe Islands Say Yes to Same-Sex Marriage
  356. ^ Island Chain Votes To Ban Discrimination Against Gays
  357. ^ §266b
  358. ^ "Holdningsskred i synet på homoseksuelle på Færøerne". Information. 
  359. ^ (Swedish) Lag om registrerat partnerskap
  360. ^ "Finland president signs gay marriage law – couples will have to wait to get married until 2017". Gay Star News. 
  361. ^ (Finnish) Ihmisoikeudet kuuluvat myös transsukupuolisille
  362. ^ (Icelandic)Lög um breytingu á lagaákvæðum er varða réttarstöðu samkynhneigðra (sambúð, ættleiðingar, tæknifrjóvgun)
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  365. ^ "New gay marriage law in Iceland comes into force". Icenews.is. Retrieved 14 August 2010. 
  366. ^ https://adopt.com/iceland/
  367. ^ (Icelandic) Alþingi Barnalög
  368. ^ Iceland adopts a new comprehensive law on trans issues
  369. ^ "President Signs Anti-Gay Constitutional Amendment". UK Gay News. December 21, 2005. Retrieved 2009-08-12. 
  370. ^ http://travel.state.gov/content/adoptionsabroad/en/country-information/learn-about-a-country/latvia.html
  371. ^ (Latvian) Cik viegli pārvērsties no Ievas par Ādamu?
  372. ^ Čachovskis, K. (March 25, 2015). "9 MPs register bill on same-sex partnership". DELFI. Retrieved July 4, 2015. 
  373. ^ http://travel.state.gov/content/adoptionsabroad/en/country-information/learn-about-a-country/lithuania.html
  374. ^ (Lithuanian) Lietuvos Respublikos Civilinis kodeksas (Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania
  375. ^ https://lovdata.no/dokument/LTI/lov/2008-06-27-53
  376. ^ "Norway Gay Marriage Bill Passes Final Hurdle". 365gay.com. Retrieved 17 June 2008. 
  377. ^ "Norway passes law approving gay marriage". Latimes.com. 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2015-05-29. 
  378. ^ http://travel.state.gov/content/adoptionsabroad/en/country-information/learn-about-a-country/norway.html
  379. ^ (Norwegian Nynorsk) Lovdata Barnelova
  380. ^ http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/sfs/20090253.pdf
  381. ^ "Gays Win Marriage Rights". Sveriges Radio English. 1 April 2009. 
  382. ^ http://travel.state.gov/content/adoptionsabroad/en/country-information/learn-about-a-country/sweden.html
  383. ^ (Swedish) Sveriges Riksdag Föräldrabalk
  384. ^ Fia Sundevall & Alma Persson (2016) "LGBT in the Military: Policy Development in Sweden 1944–2014", Sexuality Research and Social Policy, June 2016, Volume 13, Issue 2, pp 119-129, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13178-015-0217-6/fulltext.html
  385. ^ http://www.gaystarnews.com/article/sweden-ends-forced-sterilization-trans110113
  386. ^ Criminal Code (Amendment) Ordinance 2000 (PDF)
  387. ^ Criminal Code (consolidated)
  388. ^ Employment (Equality) Ordinance 2013 (PDF)
  389. ^ Dan Littauer, Albania passes landmark gay hate crime laws, gaystarnews.com, 5 May 2013
  390. ^ (Catalan) Llei 4/2005, del 21 de febrer, qualificada de les unions estables de parella
  391. ^ a b (Catalan) Llei 34/2014, del 27 de novembre, qualificada de les unions civils i de modificació de la Llei qualificada del matrimoni, de 30 de juny de 1995
  392. ^ "Diari d'Andorra - Enllestida la llei d’unions civils amb el procés d’adopció dels matrimonis". diariandorra.ad. 
  393. ^ (Catalan) Demà entren en vigor lleis importants, com la d'unions civils o la 'regla d´or'
  394. ^ "Article 46(1), Bulgaria – Constitution". Retrieved 2009-10-04. 
  395. ^ http://travel.state.gov/content/adoptionsabroad/en/country-information/learn-about-a-country/bulgaria.html
  396. ^ "Bulgarian Parliament approves with 93-23 vote (and 23 abstentions) amendments to the Protection from Discrimination Act to include protection against discrimination of trans people". The Sofia Globe. 25 March 2015. 
  397. ^ "Bulgarian Parliament Votes on Anti-Discrimination Law Amendments". Novinite.com. 25 March 2015. 
  398. ^ (Croatian) Zakon o životnom partnerstvu osoba istog spola
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  400. ^ (Croatian) "Zakon o suzbijanju diskriminacije". Narodne-novine.nn.hr. 21 July 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2014. 
  401. ^ (Croatian)"Pravilnik o načinu prikupljanja medicinske dokumentacije te utvrđivanja uvjeta i pretpostavki za promjenu spola i drugom rodnom identitetu.". Narodne-novine.nn.hr. 15 November 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2014. 
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  405. ^ CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT 2014
  406. ^ Command Paper for Consultation on Marriage Act
  407. ^ Command Paper on a draft Act to make amendments to the Marriage Act to make provision for same sex marriage and enable civil partners to convert their partnership into marriage
  408. ^ http://www.gibraltarlaws.gov.gi/articles/2006-37o.pdf
  409. ^ "Calls for gender recognition in Gibraltar". PinkNews. 
  410. ^ "Η Ελλάδα είπε το μεγάλο «ναι» στο σύμφωνο συμβίωσης". 
  411. ^ http://www.quirinale.it/qrnw/statico/attivita/attifirmati/sett_atti.asp?Atti=sett/2016_m05d16.htm
  412. ^ http://www.gaypost.it/presidente-mattarella-firmato-la-legge-sulle-unioni-civili/
  413. ^ (Italian) Atto Senato n. 15
  414. ^ (Italian) Atto Senato n. 204
  415. ^ (Italian) Atto Senato n. 393
  416. ^ (Italian) "Adozioni gay, la Corte d’Appello di Roma conferma: sì a due mamme". Corriere della Sera. 
  417. ^ (Italian)"Cassazione, via libera alla stepchild adoption in casi particolari". Repubblica. 
  418. ^ (Italian) "Legge 14 Aprile 1982, n. 164 (GU n. 106 del 19/04/1982) Norme in Materia di Rettificazione di Attribuzione di Sesso". Archived from the original on 23 May 2007. 
  419. ^ Court of Cassation judgment of 21 May 2015
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  421. ^ a b AN ACT to regulate civil unions and to provide for matters connected therewith or ancillary thereto
  422. ^ MARRIAGE ACT
  423. ^ Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics Bill
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  426. ^ (Portuguese) Law no. 7/2001, from 11 May (specifically Article 1, no. 1).
  427. ^ (Portuguese) AR altera lei das uniões de facto
  428. ^ Law no. 9/2010, from 30th May.
  429. ^ (Portuguese) Lei 17/2016 de 20 de junho
  430. ^ (Portuguese) Lei que alarga a procriação medicamente assistida publicada em Diário da República
  431. ^ (Portuguese) Todas as mulheres com acesso à PMA a 1 de Agosto
  432. ^ http://www.lgbt-ep.eu/press-releases/meps-welcome-new-gender-change-law-in-portugal-concerned-about-lithuania/
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  435. ^ (Italian) San Marino. Unioni civili, presto sul tavolo tre bozze di legge
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  444. ^ "DECRETO 117/2002, de 24 de octubre, por el que se crea el Registro de Uniones de Hecho en Castilla y León y se regula su funcionamiento" (PDF) (in Spanish). Junta de Castilla y León. Retrieved November 6, 2015. 
  445. ^ "Ley de Cantabria 1/2005, de 16 de mayo, de Parejas de Hecho de la Comunidad Autónoma de Cantabria." (in Spanish). Noticias Juridicas. Retrieved November 6, 2015. 
  446. ^ "Decreto 248/2007, de 20 de diciembre, por el que se crea y se regula el Registro de Parejas de Hecho de Galicia." (in Spanish). Noticias Juridicas. Retrieved November 6, 2015. 
  447. ^ "Decreto 30/2010, de 14 de mayo, por el que se crea el Registro de Parejas de Hecho de La Rioja" (in Spanish). El Gobierno de La Rioja. Retrieved November 6, 2015. 
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  450. ^ (Spanish) Boletín Oficial del Estado Ley 14/2006, de 26 de mayo, sobre técnicas de reproducción humana asistida (see Article 7)
  451. ^ (Spanish) Ley 3/2007, de 15 de marzo, reguladora de la rectificación registral de la mención relativa al sexo de las personas
  452. ^ a b "Turkey’s main opposition proposed labor bill for LGBT people". kaosgl.com. 
  453. ^ http://ijg.sagepub.com/content/18/1/77.abstract
  454. ^ (German) Gesetz zur Einführung des gesetzlichen Zusammenwohnens
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  456. ^ "Belgium legalizes gay marriage". UPI. 31 January 2003. 
  457. ^ "Belgium approves same-sex marriage". PlanetOut. 30 January 2003. 
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  460. ^ (French) (Dutch) Loi du 10 mai 2007 relative à la transsexualité/Wet van 10 mei 2007 betreffende de transseksualiteit
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  468. ^ http://www.gov.gg/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=98636&p=0
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  476. ^ Thirty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution (Marriage Equality) Bill 2015
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  479. ^ http://rainbow-europe.org/#8639/0/0
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  483. ^ "Equal Status Act, 2000". Irishstatutebook.ie. 26 April 2000. Retrieved 11 July 2010. 
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  487. ^ "Chief Minister looks to legalise same-sex marriage". energyfm.net. 
  488. ^ "Bishop in talks with Chief Minister on gay marriage". energyfm.net. 
  489. ^ EMPLOYMENT ACT 2006
  490. ^ "GENDER RECOGNITION ACT 2009" (PDF). legislation.gov.im. 
  491. ^ "Gender recognition bill to provide protection to Isle of Man trans residents". PinkNews. 
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  493. ^ Equal Marriage and Partnership Options Paper Report
  494. ^ http://www.statesassembly.gov.je/AssemblyPropositions/2015/P.40-2015.pdf
  495. ^ GENDER RECOGNITION (JERSEY) LAW 2010
  496. ^ (French) Loi du 9 juillet 2004 relative aux effets légaux de certains partenariats
  497. ^ Same-sex marriages from January 1
  498. ^ Same-Sex Marriage in Luxembourg from 1 January 2015
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  501. ^ n°207 - Proposition de loi relative au Pacte de vie commune
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  513. ^ legislation.gov.uk Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008: Cases in which woman to be other parent
  514. ^ Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 (c. 4)
  515. ^ http://lug-info.com/documents/one/ugolovnyi-kodeks-luganskoi-narodnoi-respubliki-467
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  528. ^ "Civil Unions Bill 2011". ACT Government. Retrieved September 14, 2012. 
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  534. ^ Chand, Shalveen (26 February 2010). "Same sex law decriminalised". Fiji Times. Retrieved 6 October 2011. 
  535. ^ Verheyen, Vincent. "Sexual orientation [LGBTQ+] and the draft of the new Solomon Islands Constitution". Retrieved 3 March 2016. 
  536. ^ Nauru decriminalises homosexuality
  537. ^ Crimes Act 2016
  538. ^ Palau decriminalises sex between men
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  541. ^ Employment Relations Act 2012
  542. ^ Pitcairn Island: Same Sex Marriage and Civil Partnership Ordinance 2015
  543. ^ Laws - PITCAIRN
  544. ^ The Pitcairn Constitution Order 2010
  545. ^ Labour and Employment Relations Act 2013

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