Sardinian language

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Sardinian
Sardu, Limba / Lingua Sarda
Native to Italy
Region Sardinia
Native speakers
 1 million (1993–2007)[1]
Official status
Recognised minority
language in
Italy
Sardinia
Regulated by Limba Sarda Comuna code
Language codes
ISO 639-1 sc
ISO 639-2 srd
ISO 639-3 srd – inclusive code
Individual codes:
sro – Campidanese dialect
src – Logudorese dialect
Glottolog sard1257[2]
Linguasphere

51-AAA-s +(Corso-Sardinian)

51-AAA-pd & -pe
Idioma sardo.png
Sardinia Language Map.png
Languages and dialects of Sardinia. Sardinian is yellow (Logudorese) and orange (Campidanese).
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Sardinian (sardu, limba sarda, lingua sarda) is the primary indigenous Romance language spoken on most of the island of Sardinia (Italy). Of the Romance languages it is considered the closest to Latin.[3] However, it also incorporates a reduced Paleo-Sardinian (Nuragic) and Punic substratum, and a Catalan, Spanish and Italian superstratum due to the past political membership of the Kingdom of Sardinia, first belonging to the Crown of Aragon and the Spanish Empire, and later to the House of Savoy.

Sardinian consists of two varieties, each with their own literature:[4][5] Campidanese and Logudorese, spoken respectively in the southern half and in the north-central part of Sardinia. Some attempts have been made to introduce a standardized writing system by combining the two Sardinian varieties, like the LSU (Limba Sarda Unificada, "Unified Sardinian Language") and LSC (Limba Sarda Comuna, "Common Sardinian Language"),[6] but they have not been acknowledged by native speakers.[7]

In 1997 Sardinian, along with all the other languages spoken by the Sardinians, has been recognized by a regional law; since 1999, Sardinian is also one of the twelve "historical language minorities" of Italy and protected as such by the national Law 482.[8] However, the language is dying out and UNESCO classifies both main varieties as "definitely endangered";[9] although an estimated 68,4 percent of the islanders have a good oral command of Sardinian,[10] Italian is displacing it nonetheless; language ability among children drops in fact to around 13 percent and their numbers are rapidly diminishing.[11]

Overview[edit]

Now the question arises as to whether Sardinian is to be considered a dialect or a language in its own right. Politically speaking,[12] it is clearly one of the many dialects of Italy, just like the Serbo-Croatian and the Albanian spoken in various villages of Calabria and Sicily. However, from a linguistic point of view, that is a different question. It can be said that Sardinian has no relationship whatsoever with any dialect of mainland Italy; it is an archaic Romance speech with its own distinctive characteristics, showing a very original vocabulary in addition to morphology and syntax rather different from the Italian dialects.[13]

— Max Leopold Wagner, La lingua sarda, 1951 – Ilisso, pp. 90–91

Sardinian is considered the most conservative Romance language,[14] and its substratum (Paleo-Sardinian or Nuragic) has also been researched. A 1949 study by Italian-American linguist Mario Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Latin, in the case of Romance languages) by comparing phonology, inflection, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Latin):[15] Sardinian 8%, Italian 12%, Spanish 20%, Romanian 23.5%, Occitan 25%, Portuguese 31%, and French 44%. For example, Latin "Pone mihi tres panes in bertula" (put three loaves of bread [from home] in the bag for me) would be the very similar "Ponemi tres panes in bertula" in Sardinian.[16]

Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria (not on socio-functional ones). Koryakov (2001) ascribes Sardinian to the separated Island Romance branch of the Romance languages, along with old Corsican.[17]

Compared to the mainland Italian lects, Sardinian is virtually incomprehensible for Italians, being actually an autonomous linguistic group.[18][19]

History[edit]

See also: History of Sardinia

Sardinia's relative isolation from mainland Europe encouraged the development of a Romance language preserving traces of its indigenous, pre-Roman language(s). The language is posited to have substratal influences from Paleo-Sardinian language, which some scholars have linked to Basque[20] and Etruscan.[21] Adstratal influences include Catalan, Spanish, and Italian. The situation of Sardinian language with regard to the politically dominant ones did not change until the 1950s.[22]

Origins, Prenuragic and Nuragic era[edit]

The origins of the Paleo-Sardinian language are currently not known. Research has attempted to discover obscure, indigenous, pre-Romance roots; the root sard, present in many place names and denoting the island's people, is reportedly from Sherden (one of the Sea Peoples), although this assertion is quite debated.

In 1984, Massimo Pittau said he found in the Etruscan language the etymology of many Latin words after comparing it with the Nuragic language(s).[21] Etruscan elements, formerly considered originating in Latin, would indicate a connection between the ancient Sardinian culture and the Etruscans. According to Pittau, the Etruscan and Nuragic language(s) are descended from Lydian (and therefore Indo-European) as a consequence of contact with Etruscans and other Tyrrhenians from Sardis described by Herodotus.[21] Although Pittau suggests that the Tirrenii landed in Sardinia and the Etruscans landed in modern Tuscany, his views are not shared by most Etruscologists.

According to Bertoldi and Terracini, Paleo-Sardinian has similarities with the Iberic languages and Siculian; for example, the suffix ara in proparoxytones indicated the plural. Terracini proposed the same for suffixes in -/àna/, -/ànna/, -/énna/, -/ònna/ + /r/ + a paragogic vowel (such as the toponym Bunnànnaru). Rohlfs, Butler and Craddock add the suffix -/ini/ (such as the toponym Barùmini) as a unique element of Paleo-Sardinian. Suffixes in /a, e, o, u/ + -rr- found a correspondence in north Africa (Terracini), in Iberia (Blasco Ferrer) and in southern Italy and Gascony (Rohlfs), with a closer relationship to Basque (Wagner and Hubschmid). However, these early links to a Basque precursor have been questioned by some Basque linguists.[23] According to Terracini, suffixes in -/ài/, -/éi/, -/òi/, and -/ùi/ are common to Paleo-Sardinian and northern African languages. Pittau emphasized that this concerns terms originally ending in an accented vowel, with an attached paragogic vowel; the suffix resisted Latinization in some place names, which show a Latin body and a Nuragic suffix. According to Bertoldi, some toponyms ending in -/ài/ and -/asài/ indicated an Anatolic influence. The suffix -/aiko/, widely used in Iberia and possibly of Celtic origin, and the ethnic suffix in -/itanos/ and -/etanos/ (for example, the Sardinian Sulcitanos) have also been noted as Paleo-Sardinian elements (Terracini, Ribezzo, Wagner, Hubschmid and Faust).

Linguists Blasco Ferrer (2009, 2010) and Morvan (2009) have attempted to revive a theoretical connection with Basque by linking words such as Sardinian ospile "fresh grazing for cattle" and Basque ozpil; Sardinian arrotzeri "vagabond" and Basque arrotz "stranger"; Sardinian arru "stone, stony" and Basque arri "stone", and Gallurese (South Corsican and North Sardinian) zerru "pig" and Basque zerri. Genetic data on the distribution of HLA antigens have suggested a common origin for the Basques and Sardinians.[24]

Since the Neolithic period, some degree of variance across the island's regions is also attested. The Arzachena culture, for instance, suggests a link between the northernmost Sardinian region (Gallura) and southern Corsica that finds further confirmation in the Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder. There are also some stylistic differences between north and south Nuragic Sardinia, which may indicate the existence of two other tribal groups (Balares and Ilienses) mentioned by the same Roman author. According to the archeologist Giovanni Ugas,[25] these peoples may have in fact played an important role in shaping the current regional linguistic differences of the island.

Roman period[edit]

Although Roman domination, which began in 238 BC, brought Latin to Sardinia, it was unable to completely supplant the pre-Roman Sardinian languages, including Punic, which continued to be spoken until the second century AD. Some obscure Nuragic roots remained unchanged, and in many cases the Latin accepted local roots (like nur, which makes its appearance in nuraghe, Nùgoro and many other toponyms). Barbagia, the mountainous central region of the island, derives its name from the Latin Barbaria, because its people refused cultural and linguistic assimilation for a long time: 50% of toponyms of central Sardinia are actually not related to any known language.[26] Besides the place names, on the island there are still a few names of plants, animals and geological formations directly traceable to the ancient Nuragic era.[27] Cicero called the Sardinian rebels latrones mastrucati ("thieves with rough wool cloaks") to emphasize Roman superiority.[28]

The Latin cultural domination but, above all, the extermination of the male population (whether enslaved or killed), as was customary during the Roman wars of conquest in Western Europe,[29][30][31] and the subsequent replacement with Roman settlers and retired legionnaires, made the language of Sardinians a Romance or neo-Latin one, with phonetic and morphological features resembling Old Latin. Some linguists assert that modern Sardinian, being part of the Island Romance group,[17] was the first language to split off from the others evolving from Latin, called Continental Romance.

At this time, the only literature being produced in Sardinia is mostly in Latin: the native (Paleo-Sardinian) and non-native (Punic) pre-Roman languages were then already extinct (the last Punic inscription in Bithia, southern Sardinia, is from the second or third century A.D.[32]). Some engraved poems in ancient Greek and Latin (the two most prestigious languages in the Roman Empire[33]) can be spotted in Cagliari's Cave of the Viper ( Grutta 'e sa Pibera in Sardinian, Grotta della Vipera in Italian, Cripta Serpentum in Latin), a burial monument built by Lucius Cassius Philippus (a Roman who had been exiled to Sardinia) in remembrance of his dead spouse Atilia Pomptilla. We also have some religious works by Saints Lucifer and Eusebius, both from Caralis (Cagliari).

Although Sardinia was culturally influenced and politically ruled by the Byzantine Empire for almost five centuries, Greek did not enter its language except for some ritual or formal expressions in Sardinian using Greek structure and, sometimes, Greek alphabet.[34][35] Evidence for this is found in the condaghes, the first written documents in Sardinian. From the the long Byzantine era there are only a few entries but they already provide a glimpse of the sociolinguistical situation on the island in which, in addition to the community's everyday Neo-Latin language, Greek was also spoken by the ruling classes.[36] Some toponyms, such as Jerzu (thought to derive from the Greek khérsos, "untilled" and the personal names Mikhaleis, Konstantine and Basilis) demonstrate Greek influence.[36]

As the Muslims conquered southern Italy, communications broke down between Constantinople and Sardinia, whose districts became progressively more autonomous from the Byzantine oecumene (Greek: οἰκουμένη). Sardinia was then brought back to Latin sphere.

Giudicati period[edit]

See also: Giudicati

Sardinian was the first Romance language to gain official status, being used by the Giudicati, four Byzantine districts often quarreling with each other that became independent political entities after the Arab expansion in the Mediterranean cut the ties between the island and Byzantium. Sardinian had a greater number of archaisms and Latinisms than the present language does. Comparing the documents from the Giudicato of Cagliari to those from the Torres' and Gallura's one, Sardinian language displays already a certain range of dialectal variation. A special position is occupied by the Giudicato of Arborea, the last Sardinian kingdom to fall to foreign powers, in which a transitional dialect was spoken. The Carta de Logu of the Kingdom of Arborea, drawn up in 1355–1376 by Marianus IV and the Lady Judge (judikessa in Sardinian, giudicessa in Italian) Eleanor, was originally written in such intermediate variety and would remain in force until 1827.[37] It is presumed the Arborean judges attempted to unify the two main Sardinian dialects in order to gain legitimacy and be therefore entitled to be kings of the entire island.[38]

Dante Alighieri wrote in his 1302–05 essay De vulgari eloquentia that he would except Sardinians; since they were not Italians (Latii), they had no vulgar language of their own.[39][40][41]

Dante's view has been dismissed, because Sardinian evolved enough to be unintelligible to non-islanders. A popular 12th-century verse quotes the provençal troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras: No t'intend plui d'un Toesco / o Sardo o Barbarì ("I don't understand you any more than I understand a German / or a Sardinian or a Berber").[42][43] The Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, who lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King Roger II, wrote in is work "Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi'khtiraq al-'afaq" ("The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands" or, simply, "The book of Roger") that "Sardinia is large, mountainous, poor water, two hundred and eighty miles long and one hundred and eighty long from west to east. [...] The Sardinians are lineage Rum Afāriqah (Latins of Africa) like berbers; they shun contacts with all the other Rum nations and are people of purpose and valiant, who never leaves the arms".[44][45]

Two pages of an illuminated manuscript
Sardinian-language statutes of Sassari from the 13th–14th centuries

The literature of this period primarily consists of legal documents. The first document containing Sardinian elements is a 1063 donation to the abbey of Montecassino signed by Barisone I of Torres.[46] Other documents are the Carta Volgare (1070–1080) in Campidanese, the 1080 Logudorese Privilege,[47] the 1089 Donation of Torchitorio (in the Marseille archives),[48] the 1190–1206 Marsellaise Chart (in Campidanese)[49] and an 1173 communication between the Bishop Bernardo of Civita and Benedetto, who oversaw the Opera del Duomo in Pisa.[50] The Statutes of Sassari are written in Logudorese.[51]

Catalan period[edit]

See also: Kingdom of the Crown of Aragon

The 1297 feoffment of Sardinia by Pope Boniface VIII led to the creation of the Aragonese Kingdom of Sardinia and a long period of war between the Aragonese and Sardinians, ending with a Catalan victory at Sanluri in 1409 and the renunciation of any succession right signed by William III of Narbonne in 1420.[52] During this period the clergy adopted Catalan as their primary language, relegating Sardinian to a secondary status. According to attorney Sigismondo Arquer (author of Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio), Sardinian prevailed in rural areas and Catalan was spoken in the cities, where the ruling class eventually became bilingual in both languages; Alghero is still a Catalan-speaking enclave on Sardinia to this day.[53]

The long-lasting war and the so-called Black Death had a devastating effect on the island, depopulating large parts of it. People from the neighbouring island of Corsica began to settle in the northern Sardinian coast, leading to the birth of the Tuscan-sounding Sassarese and Gallurese.[54]

Despite spoken Catalan's popularity on the island at this time (which had a lasting influence on Sardinian), there are some written records of Sardinian. One is the 15th-century Sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Brothu et Ianuariu, written by Antòni Canu (1400–1476) and published in 1557: Tando su rey barbaru su cane renegadu / de custa resposta multu restayt iradu / & issu martiriu fetit apparigiare / itu su quale fesit fortemente ligare / sos sanctos martires cum bonas catenas / qui li segaant sos ossos cum sas veinas / & totu sas carnes cum petenes de linu ... . Rimas Spirituales, by Hieronimu Araolla, "glorif[ied] and enrich[ed] Sardinian, our language" (magnificare et arrichire sa limba nostra sarda) as Spanish, French and Italian poets had done for their languages (la Deffense et illustration de la langue françoyse and il Dialogo delle lingue).[22][55] Antonio Lo Frasso, a poet born in Alghero (a city he remembered fondly)[56] who spent his life in Barcelona, wrote lyric poetry in Sardinian:[57]  ... Non podende sufrire su tormentu / de su fogu ardente innamorosu. / Videndemi foras de sentimentu / et sensa una hora de riposu, / pensende istare liberu e contentu / m'agato pius aflitu e congoixosu, / in essermi de te senora apartadu, / mudende ateru quelu, ateru istadu ....

Spanish period[edit]

Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 and, later in 1624, the reorganization of the monarchy led by the Count-Duke of Olivares, Sardinia would progressively leave the exclusive Aragonese sphere of influence in favour of the Spanish one. Unlike Catalan, however, Spanish was perceived as an elitist language, gaining ground among the ruling classes; Sardinian retained much of its importance, being the only language the rural people were proficient in.[58][59] A 1620 proclamation is in the Bosa archives.[60] In "Legendariu de Santas Virgines, et Martires de Iesu Christu", the Orgolese priest Ioan Matheu Garipa called Sardinian the closest living relative of classical Latin: Las apo voltadas in sardu menjus qui non in atera limba pro amore de su vulgu [...] qui non tenjan bisonju de interprete pro bi-las decrarare, et tambene pro esser sa limba sarda tantu bona, quanta participat de sa latina, qui nexuna de quantas limbas si plàtican est tantu parente assa latina formale quantu sa sarda.

Piedmontese period and Kingdom of Italy[edit]

See also: Piedmontese period

The War of the Spanish Succession gave Sardinia to Austria, whose sovereignty was confirmed by the 1713–14 treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt. In 1717 a Spanish fleet reoccupied Cagliari, and the following year Sardinia was ceded to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy in exchange for Sicily. This transfer would not initally entail any social nor linguistic changes, though: Sardinia would still retain for a long time its Iberian character, so much so that only in 1767 were the Aragonese and Spanish dynastic symbols replaced by the Savoyard cross.[61]

During the Savoyard period, a number of essays written by philologist Matteo Madau[62][63] and professor (and senator) Giovanni Spano attempted to establish a unified orthography based on Logudorese, just like Florentine would become the basis for Italian.[64] However, the Piedmontese government imposed Italian on Sardinia in July 1760,[65][66][67][68] implementing an island-wide assimilation policy to bind the island to Italy. Until then, Italian was a foreign language to Sardinians.[69]

Carlo Baudi di Vesme (Cuneo, 1809 – Turin, 1877) proposed the suppression of Sardinian in order to make the islanders "civilized" Italians,[70] importing solely Italian-speaking teachers from other regions, and Piedmontese cartographers attempted to replace Sardinian place names with Italian ones. Despite the assimilation policy the anthem of the Piedmontese Kingdom of Sardinia was the Hymnu Sardu (or Cunservet Deus su Re), with Sardinian lyrics.

During the mobilization for World War I, the Italian Army compelled all Sardinians to enlist as Italian subjects and raised the Sassari Infantry Brigade on 1 March 1915 at Tempio Pausania and Sinnai. Unlike other Italian infantry brigades, Sassari's was recruited on Sardinia (including its officers). It is the only Italian unit with an anthem in a regional language: Dimonios ("Devils"), by Luciano Sechi. Its title derives from Rote Teufel (German for "red devils"). Compulsory military service played a role in language shift.

Under Fascism every language other than Italian was banned, to the point of forbidding Sardinia's characteristic improvised poetry competitions,[71][72][73] and surnames were changed to sound more Italian.[74] During this period, the Sardinian Hymn of the Piedmontese Kingdom was a chance to use a regional language without penalty; as a royal tradition, it could not be forbidden.

Present[edit]

Sign with graphic of crossed-out cigarette
No-smoking sign in Sardinian and Italian

The emphasis on monolingual (Italian-only) policies and assimilation has continued after World War II, with historical sites and ordinary objects renamed in Italian.[75] The Ministry of Public Education reportedly requested the monitoring of Sardinian teachers.[76] The rejection of the indigenous language, along with a rigid model of Italian-language education,[77] led to the difficult scholarization of Sardinians. Even now, Sardinia currently has the highest rate of school and university drop-out in Italy.[78]

During the 1990s, Sardinian, Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovenian, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin and Occitan were recognized as minority languages by Law 482-1999.[79] Nevertheless, in many Italian libraries and universities books about the Sardinian language are still classified as Linguistica italiana (Italian linguistics), Dialetti italiani (Italian dialects) or Dialettologia italiana (Italian dialectology).[80][81] Sardinian is considered an "Italian dialect" by some[82] (even at the institutional level)[83] and it has been stigmatized as indicative of a lack of education;[84][85] it is associated still by many locals with shame, backwardness and provincialism as a result.[86] For instance, some Sardinians call the language sa limba de su famine / sa lingua de su famini, literally translating into English as "the language of hunger" (i.e. the language of the poor), regarding it as a stigma of a poverty-stricken, rural, and underprivileged life.

Bilingual sign pointing to a church
Bilingual Italian–Sardinian road sign in Siniscola

Despite campaigns to give Sardinian equal status with Italian as a means to promote cultural identity,[87] a number of factors like a considerable immigration flow from mainland Italy, the interior rural exodus to urban areas[88] and the use of Italian as a prerequisite for jobs and social advancement actually hinder any policy set up to promote the language.[89][90][91] Therefore, UNESCO classifies Sardinian as "definitely endangered", because "many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years".[92]

At present, language use is far from stable:[22] reports show that, while an estimated 68 percent of the islanders have a good oral command of Sardinian, language ability among the children drops to around 13 percent;[93][94] some linguists cite the low number of Sardinian-speaking children as indicative of language decline.[11]

Instead, most of the younger generation, although they do understand some Sardinian, is actually Italian monolingual and monocultural, speaking a mixture of Italian and Sardinian (considered regional Italian by linguists[22]) that is called italiànu porcheddìnu ("piggy Italian", meaning more or less "broken Italian") by the relatively few native Sardinian speakers still left.[95] Today, the only people who are still able to speak Sardinian on an everyday basis mainly live in the sparsely populated interior of the island, like the Barbagia region.[96][97]

A bill proposed by former prime minister Mario Monti's cabinet would have lowered Sardinian's protection level,[98] distinguishing between languages protected by international agreements (German, Slovenian, French and Ladin) and indigenous languages. This bill, which was not implemented (Italy has signed, but not ratified, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages),[99][100] triggered a reaction on the island.[101][102][103][104] Students have expressed an interest in taking all (or part) of their exit examinations in Sardinian.[105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]

Church of the Pater Noster (Jerusalem), Lord's Prayer plaque in Sardinian

In response to a 2013 Italian initiative to remove bilingual signs, a group of Sardinians began a virtual campaign on Google Maps to replace Italian place names with the original Sardinian names. After about one month, Google changed the place names back to Italian.[113][114][115] After a signature campaign,[116] it has been made possible to change the language setting on Facebook from any language to Sardinian.[117][118] In the 1990s, there was a resurgence of Sardinian-language music, ranging from the more traditional genres (cantu a tenore, cantu a chiterra, gozos etc.) to rock (Kenze Neke, Askra, Tzoku, Tazenda etc.) and even hip hop and rap (Dr. Drer e CRC Posse, Quilo, Sa Razza, Malam, Menhir, Stranos Elementos, Randagiu Sardu, Futta etc.), and with artists who use the language as a means to promote the island and address its long-standing issues and the new challenges.[119][120][121][122] There are also a few films (like Su Re, Bellas Mariposas, Treulababbu, Sonetaula etc.) dubbed in Sardinian,[123] and some others (like Metropolis) provided with subtitles in the language.[124]

In 2015, all the political parties in the Sardinian regional council have reached an agreement involving a series of amendments to the old 1997 law in order to introduce the optional teaching of the language in Sardinia's schools. The law, if approved, will be implemented the same year.[125][126][127] Although there is still not an option to teach Sardinian on the island itself, let alone in Italy, some language courses are instead available in Germany (Universities of Stuttgart, Munich and Tübingen), Spain (University of Girona)[128] and Czech Republic (Brno university).[129][130] Shigeaki Sugeta also taught Sardinian to his students of Romance languages at the Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan.[131][132][133]

At present, the Sardinian-speaking community is the least protected one, despite being the largest minority language group recognized by Italy.[134] In fact the language, which is slowly receding in all domains of use, is still not given access to any field of public life, such as education (Italian–Sardinian bilingualism in schools is still frowned upon,[11][107][135][136] while the local universities do not provide any support in the language[137][138]), politics (with the exception of some nationalist groups), justice, administrative authorities and public services, media,[139][140][141] and cultural,[142] ecclesiastical,[143] economic and social activities, as well as facilities. A solution to the Sardinian question is unlikely to be found anytime soon.[22]

Phonology[edit]

All dialects of Sardinian have phonetic features that are archaic relative to other Romance languages. The degree of archaism varies, with the dialect spoken in the Province of Nuoro being considered the most conservative. Medieval evidence indicates that the language spoken on Sardinia and Corsica at the time was similar to modern Nuorese Sardinian. The remaining dialects are thought to have innovated as the result of Tuscan (later Italian) and Spanish influences.

The examples listed below are from the Logudorese dialect:

  • The Latin short vowels [i] and [u] have preserved their original sound; in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese they became [e] and [o], respectively (for example, siccus > sicu, "dry" (Italian secco, Spanish and Portuguese seco).
  • Preservation of the plosive sounds [k] and [ɡ] before front vowels [e] and [i] in many words; for example, centum > kentu, "hundred"; decem > dèke, "ten" and gener > gheneru, "son-in-law" (Italian cento, dièci, genero with [tʃ] and [dʒ]).
  • Absence of diphthongizations found in other Romance languages; for example, potest > podest, "he can" (Italian può, Spanish puede, Portuguese pode); bonus > bónu, "good" (Italian buono, Spanish bueno, Portuguese bom)

Sardinian contains the following phonetic innovations:

  • Change of the Latin -ll- into a retroflex [ɖɖ], shared with Sicilian; for example, corallus > coraddu, "coral" and villa > bidda, "village, town"
  • Similar changes in the consonant clusters -ld- and -nd-: soldus > [ˈsoɖ.ɖu] (money), abundantia > [ab.buɳ.ˈɖan.tsi.a] (abundance)
  • Evolution of pl-, fl and cl into pr, fr and cr, as in Portuguese and Galician; for example, platea > pratza, "plaza" (Portuguese praça, Galician praza, Italian piazza), fluxus > frúsciu, "flabby" (Portuguese and Galician frouxo) and ecclesia > cresia, "church" (Portuguese igreja, Galician igrexa and Italian chiesa)
  • Rearrangements like abbratzare > abbaltzare (to embrace)
  • Vowel prothesis before an initial r in Campidanese, similar to Basque and Gascon: rex > urrei = re, gurrèi (king); rota > arroda (wheel) (Gascon arròda); rivus > Sardinian and Gascon arríu (river)
  • Vowel prothesis in Logudorese before an initial s followed by consonant, as in the Western Romance languages: scriptum > iscrítu (Spanish escrito, French écrit), stella > isteddu, "star" (Spanish estrella, French étoile)
  • Except for the Nuorese dialects, intervocalic Latin single voiceless plosives [p, t, k] became voiced approximant consonants. Single voiced plosives [b, d, ɡ] were lost: [t] > [d] (or its soft counterpart, [ð]): locus > [ˈlo.ɡu] (Italian luògo), caritas > ['ka.ri.tas] (It. carità). This also applies across word boundaries: porcus (pig), but su borku (the pig); domus (house), but sa omo (the house).

Although the latter two features were acquired during Spanish rule, the others indicate a deeper relationship between ancient Sardinia and the Iberian world; the retroflex d, l and r are found in southern Italy, Tuscany and Asturias, and were probably involved in the palatalization process of the Latin clusters -ll-, pl-, cl- (-ll- > Castilian and Catalan -ll- [ʎ], Gascon -th [c]; cl- > Galician-Portuguese ch- [tʃ], Ital. chi- [kj]).

According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Sardinian has the following phonemes:

Vowels[edit]

The five vowels /a/ /e/ /i/ /o/ /u/, without length differentiation.

Consonants[edit]

Bilabial Labio-
dental		 Dental Alveolar Post-
alveolar		 Retroflex Palatal Velar
Nasal m /m/ n /n/ gn /ɲ/
Plosive p /p/ b /b/ t /t/ d /d/ dd /ɖ/ k /k/ g /ɡ/
Affricate tz /ts/ z /dz/ ch, c /tʃ/ g /dʒ/
Fricative b /β/ f /f/ v /v/ (th /θ/) d /ð/ s, ss /s/ s /z/ sc /ʃ/ x /ʒ/ g /ɣ/
Tap r /ɾ/
Trill rr /r/
Lateral l /l/
Approximant j /j/

There are three series of plosives or corresponding approximants:

  • Voiceless stops derive from their Latin counterparts in composition after another stop. They are reinforced (double) in initial position, but this reinforcement is not written because it does not produce a different phoneme.
  • Double voiced stops (after another consonant) derive from their Latin equivalents in composition after another stop.
  • Weak voiced "stops", sometimes transcribed ⟨β, δ, ğ⟩ (approximants [β, ð, ɣ] after vowels, as in Spanish), derive from single Latin stops (voiced or voiceless).

In Cagliari and neighboring dialects, the soft [d] is assimilated to the rhotic consonant [ɾ]: digitus > didu = diru (finger).

The double-voiced retroflex stop /ɖɖ/ (written dd) derives from the former retroflex lateral approximant /ɭɭ/.

Fricatives[edit]

  • The labiodentals /f/ (sometimes pronounced [ff] or [v] in initial position) and /v/
    • Latin initial v becomes b (vipera > bibera, "viper")
      • In central Sardinia the sound /f/ disappears, akin to the /f/ > /h/ change in Gascon and Castilian.
  • [θ], written th (as in the English thing, the voiceless dental fricative), is a restricted dialectal variety of the phoneme /ts/.
  • /s/
  • /ss/: For example, ipsa > íssa
  • /ʃ/: Pronounced [ʃ] at the beginning of a word, otherwise [ʃʃ] = [ʃ.ʃ], and is written sc(i/e). The voiced equivalent, [ʒ], is often spelled with the letter x.

Affricates[edit]

  • /ts/ (or [tts]), a denti-alveolar affricate consonant written tz, corresponds to Italian z or ci.
  • /dz/ (or [ddz]), written z, corresponds to Italian gi- or ggi- respectively.
  • /tʃ/, written c(i/e) or ç
  • /ttʃ/
  • /dʒ/, written g(e/i) or j

Nasals[edit]

  • /m/, /mm/
  • /n/, /nn/
  • /ɲɲ/, written nny (the palatal nasal for some speakers or dialects, although for most the pronunciation is [nːj][citation needed])

Liquids[edit]

  • /l/ (or [ll]), double initially
  • /ɾ/, a flap written r
  • /r/, a trill written rr

Some permutations of l and r are seen; in most dialects, a preconsonant l (for example, lt or lc) becomes r: Latin "altum" > artu, marralzu = marrarzu, "rock".

In palatal context, Latin l changed into [dz], [ts], [ldz] [ll] or [dʒ], rather than the [ʎ] of Italian: achizare (Italian accigliare), *volia > bòlla = bòlza = bòza, "wish" (Italian vòglia), folia > fogia = folla = foza, "leaf" (Italian foglia), filia > filla = fidza = fiza, "daughter" (Italian figlia).

Grammar[edit]

Sardinian's distinctive features are:

  • The plural marker is -s (from the Latin accusative plural), as in the Western Romance languages French, Occitan, Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese and Galician): sardu, sardus, "sardinian"; pudda, puddas, "hen"; margiane, margianes, "fox". In Italo-Dalmatian languages (such as Italian) or Eastern Romance languages (such as Romanian), the plural ends with -i or -e.
  • Sardinian uses a definite article derived from the Latin ipse: su, sa, plural sos, sas (Logudorese) and is (Campidanese). Such articles are common in Balearic Catalan, and were common in Gascon.
  • A periphrastic construction of "to have to" (late Latin habere ad) is used for the future: ap'a istàre < apo a istàre, "I will stay" (as in the Portuguese hei de estar, but here as periphrasis for estarei).
  • For prohibitions, a negative form of the subjunctive is used: no bengias!, "don't come!" (compare Spanish no vengas and Portuguese não venhas, classified as part of the affirmative imperative mood).

Varieties[edit]

See also: Logudorese dialect and Campidanese dialect
Sassarese (orange) and Gallurese (yellow) with respect to Sardinian (green)

Sardinia has historically had a small population scattered across isolated cantons. Its language is divided into two major dialects: Logudorese (su logudoresu), spoken in the north, and Campidanese (su campidanesu), spoken in the south. They differ primarily in phonetics, which does not hamper intelligibility. Logudorese is considered the more conservative dialect, with the Nuorese subdialect being the most conservative of all. It has retained the classical Latin pronunciation of the stop velars (kena versus cena, "supper"), the front middle vowels (compare Campidanese iotacism, probably from Byzantine Greek)[144] and assimilation of close-mid vowels (cane versus cani, "dog" and gattos versus gattus, "cats"). Labio-velars become plain labials (limba versus lingua, "language" and abba versus acua, "water"). I is prosthesized before consonant clusters beginning in s (iscala versus Campidanese scala, "stairway" and iscola versus scola, "school"). An east-west strip of small villages in central Sardinia speaks a transitional dialect (Sardu de mesania) between Logudorese and Campidanese. Examples include is limbas (the languages) and is abbas (the waters). Campidanese is the dialect spoken in the southern half of Sardinia (including Cagliari, the metropolis of the Roman province), influenced by Rome, Carthage, Costantinople and Late Latin. Examples include is fruminis (the rivers) and is domus (the houses).

Sardinian is the language of most Sardinian communities; however, it is also interesting to note the presence of transitional Sardinian–Corsican lects like Gallurese and Sassarese in addition to two language islands, the Catalan-speaking community from the city of Alghero and the Ligurian-speaking one from San Pietro and Sant'Antioco.

See also[edit]

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Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Sardinian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
    Campidanese dialect at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
    Logudorese dialect at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. ^ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Sardinian". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 
  3. ^ Henriette Walter, L'Aventure des langues en Occident, Le Livre de poche, Paris, 1994, p. 174.
  4. ^ "Sardegna Cultura - Lingua sarda - Il sardo". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  5. ^ "Sardegna Cultura - Lingua sarda - Letteratura". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  6. ^ "Sardegna Cultura - Lingua sarda - Limba sarda comuna". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  7. ^ Oppo, Anna. Le lingue dei sardi, pp.89
  8. ^ "Legge 482". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  9. ^ "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger", UNESCO
  10. ^ Oppo, Anna. Le lingue dei sardi, pp.7
  11. ^ a b c "La situazione sociolinguistica della Sardegna settentrionale di Mauro Maxia". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  12. ^ It is to be noted on that matter that Wagner would conduct academic research in 1951; Sardinian would have waited another forty years to be politically recognized, at least formally, as a minority language in Italy.
  13. ^ Original version (in Italian): Sorge ora la questione se il sardo si deve considerare come un dialetto o come una lingua. È evidente che esso è, politicamente, uno dei tanti dialetti dell’Italia, come lo è anche, p. es., il serbo-croato o l’albanese parlato in vari paesi della Calabria e della Sicilia. Ma dal punto di vista linguistico la questione assume un altro aspetto. Non si può dire che il sardo abbia una stretta parentela con alcun dialetto dell’italiano continentale; è un parlare romanzo arcaico e con proprie spiccate caratteristiche, che si rivelano in un vocabolario molto originale e in una morfologia e sintassi assai differenti da quelle dei dialetti italiani.
  14. ^ Contini & Tuttle, 1982: 171; Blasco Ferrer, 1989: 14
  15. ^ Pei, Mario (1949). Story of Language. ISBN 03-9700-400-1. 
  16. ^ Sardegna, isola del silenzio, Manlio Brigaglia
  17. ^ a b Koryakov Y.B. Atlas of Romance languages. Moscow, 2001
  18. ^ De Mauro, Tullio. L'Italia delle Italie, 1979, Nuova Guaraldi Editrice, Florence, 89
  19. ^ Minoranze Linguistiche, Fiorenzo Toso, Treccani
  20. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, ed. 2010. Paleosardo: Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica (Paleosardo: The Linguistic Roots of Neolithic Sardinian). De Gruyter Mouton
  21. ^ a b c "Massimo Pittau - La lingua dei Sardi Nuragici e degli Etruschi". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  22. ^ a b c d e Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (Editors), Trends in Romance Linguistics and Philology: Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance, pp.271-294
  23. ^ Trask, L. The History of Basque Routledge: 1997 ISBN 0-415-13116-2
  24. ^ Arnaiz-Villena A, Rodriguez de Córdoba S, Vela F, Pascual JC, Cerveró J, Bootello A. – HLA antigens in a sample of the Spanish population: common features among Spaniards, Basques, and Sardinians. – Hum Genet. 1981;58(3):344-8.
  25. ^ Giovanni Ugas - L'alba dei Nuraghi (2005) pg.241
  26. ^ Wolf H. J., 1998, Toponomastica barbaricina, Papiros publisher, Nuoro
  27. ^ Wagner M.L., D.E.S. - Dizionario etimologico sardo, DES, Heidelberg, 1960-64
  28. ^ "Cicero: Pro Scauro". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  29. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, book 7th, 25
  30. ^ Yann Le Bohec, « Des Gaulois aux Gallo-Romains. De la guerre à la paix romaine », Nouvelle Revue d'Histoire, Hors-Série, n°11H, Automne-Hiver 2015, p. 22-24
  31. ^ Christian Delacampagne, Histoire de l'esclavage. De l'Antiquité à nos jours, Paris, Le livre de poche, 2002 (ISBN 2253905933), p. 73
  32. ^ Barreca F.(1988), La civiltà fenicio-punica in Sardegna, Carlo Delfino Editore, Sassari
  33. ^ Cum utroque sermone nostro sis paratus. Svetonio, De vita Caesarum, Divus Claudius, 42
  34. ^ M. Wescher e M. Blancard, Charte sarde de l’abbaye de Saint-Victor de Marseille écrite en caractères grecs, in "Bibliothèque de l’ École des chartes", 35 (1874), pp. 255-265
  35. ^ Un’inedita carta sardo-greca del XII secolo nell’Archivio Capitolare di Pisa, di Alessandro Soddu - Paola Crasta - Giovanni Strinna
  36. ^ a b Giulio Paulis, Lingua e cultura nella Sardegna Bizantina, Sassari, 1983
  37. ^ "Carta de Logu (original text)". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  38. ^ Barisone II of Arborea, G. Seche, L'incoronazione di Barisone "Re di Sardegna" in due fonti contemporanee: gli Annales genovesi e gli Annales pisani, Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, n°4, 2010
  39. ^ Dantis Alagherii De Vulgari Eloquentia Liber Primus, The Latin Library: Sardos etiam, qui non Latii sunt sed Latiis associandi videntur, eiciamus, quoniam soli sine proprio vulgari esse videntur, gramaticam tanquam simie homines imitantes: nam domus nova et dominus meus locuntur. (Lib. I, XI, 7)
  40. ^ De Vulgari Eloquentia 's Italian paraphrase by Sergio Cecchini
  41. ^ Marinella Lőrinczi, La casa del signore. La lingua sarda nel De vulgari eloquentia
  42. ^ Leopold Wagner, Max. La lingua sarda, a cura di Giulio Paulis - Ilisso, pp.78
  43. ^ "Le sarde, une langue normale". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  44. ^ روم أفارقة متبربرون ومتوحشون,
  45. ^ Contu Giuseppe, Sardinia in Arabic sources, Annali della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere dell'Università di Sassari, Vol. 3 (2003 pubbl. 2005), p. 287-297. ISSN 1828-5384. , http://eprints.uniss.it/1055/
  46. ^ "Archivio Cassinense Perg. Caps. XI, n. 11 " e "TOLA P., Codice Diplomatico della Sardegna, I, Sassari, 1984, p. 153"
  47. ^ In nomine Domini amen. Ego iudice Mariano de Lacon fazo ista carta ad onore de omnes homines de Pisas pro xu toloneu ci mi pecterunt: e ego donolislu pro ca lis so ego amicu caru e itsos a mimi; ci nullu imperatore ci lu aet potestare istu locu de non (n)apat comiatu de leuarelis toloneu in placitu: de non occidere pisanu ingratis: e ccausa ipsoro ci lis aem leuare ingratis, de facerlis iustitia inperatore ci nce aet exere intu locu ...
  48. ^ E inper(a)tor(e) ki l ati kastikari ista delegantzia e fagere kantu narat ista carta siat benedittu ...
  49. ^ In nomine de Pater et Filiu et Sanctu Ispiritu. Ego iudigi Salusi de Lacunu cun muiere mea donna (Ad)elasia, uoluntate de Donnu Deu potestando parte de KKaralis, assolbu llu Arresmundu, priori de sanctu Saturru, a fagiri si carta in co bolit. Et ego Arresmundu, l(eba)nd(u) ass(o)ltura daba (su) donnu miu iudegi Salusi de Lacunu, ki mi illu castigit Donnu Deu balaus (a)nnus rt bonus et a issi et a (muiere) sua, fazzu mi carta pro kertu ki fegi cun isus de Maara pro su saltu ubi si ( ... )ari zizimi ( ... ) Maara, ki est de sanctu Saturru. Intrei in kertu cun isus de Maara ca mi machelaa(nt) in issu saltu miu (et canpa)niarunt si megu, c'auea cun istimonius bonus ki furunt armadus a iurari, pro cantu kertàà cun, ca fuit totu de sanctu Sat(ur)ru su saltu. Et derunt mi in issu canpaniu daa petra de mama et filia derectu a ssu runcu terra de Gosantini de Baniu et derectu a bruncu d'argillas e derectu a piskina d'arenas e leuat cabizali derectu a sa bia de carru de su mudeglu et clonpit a su cabizali de uentu dextru de ssa doméstia de donnigellu Cumitayet leuet tuduy su cabizali et essit a ssas zinnigas de moori de silba, lassandu a manca serriu et clonpit deretu a ssu pizariu de sellas, ubi posirus sa dìì su tremini et leuat sa bia maiori de genna (de sa) terra al(ba et) lebat su moori ( ... ) a sa terra de sanctu Saturru, lassandu lla issa a manca et lebat su moori lassandu a (manca) sas cortis d'oriinas de ( ... ) si. Et apirus cummentu in su campaniu, ki fegir(us), d'arari issus sas terras ipsoru ki sunt in su saltu miu et (ll)u castiari s(u) saltu et issus hominis mius de Sinnay arari sas terras mias et issas terras issoru ki sunt in saltu de ssus et issus castiari su saltu(u i)ssoru. Custu fegirus plagendu mi a mimi et a issus homi(nis) mius de Sinnay et de totu billa de Maara. Istimonius ki furunt a ssegari su saltu de pari (et) a poniri sus treminis, donnu Cumita de Lacun, ki fut curatori de Canpitanu, Cumita d'Orrù ( ... ) du, A. Sufreri et Iohanni de Serra, filiu de su curatori, Petru Soriga et Gosantini Toccu Mullina, M( ... ) gi Calcaniu de Pirri, C. de Solanas, C. Pullu de Dergei, Iorgi Cabra de Kerarius, Iorgi Sartoris, Laurenz( ... ) ius, G. Toccu de Kerarius et P. Marzu de Quartu iossu et prebiteru Albuki de Kibullas et P. de Zippari et M. Gregu, M. de Sogus de Palma et G. Corsu de sancta Ilia et A. Carena, G. Artea de Palma et Oliueri de Kkarda ( ... ) pisanu et issu gonpanioni. Et sunt istimonius de logu Arzzoccu de Maroniu et Gonnari de Laco(n) mancosu et Trogotori Dezzori de Dolia. Et est facta custa carta abendu si lla iudegi a manu sua sa curatoria de Canpitanu pro logu salbadori (et) ki ll'(aet) deuertere, apat anathema (daba) Pater et Filiu et Sanctu Ispiritu, daba XII Appostolos et IIII Euangelistas, XVI Prophetas, XXIV Seniores, CCC(XVIII) Sanctus Patris et sorti apat cun Iuda in ifernum inferiori. Siat et F. I. A. T.
  50. ^ Ego Benedictus operaius de Santa Maria de Pisas Ki la fatho custa carta cum voluntate di Domino e de Santa Maria e de Santa Simplichi e de indice Barusone de Gallul e de sa muliere donna Elene de Laccu Reina appit kertu piscupu Bernardu de Kivita, cum Iovanne operariu e mecum e cum Previtero Monte Magno Kercate nocus pro Santa Maria de vignolas ... et pro sa doma de VillaAlba e de Gisalle cum omnia pertinentia is soro .... essende facta custa campania cun sii Piscupu a boluntate de pare torraremus su Piscupu sa domo de Gisalle pro omnia sua e de sos clericos suos, e issa domo de Villa Alba, pro precu Kindoli mandarun sos consolos, e nois demus illi duas ankillas, ki farmi cojuvatas, suna cun servo suo in loco de rnola, e sattera in templo cun servii de malu sennu: a suna naran Maria Trivillo, a sattera jorgia Furchille, suna fuit de sa domo de Villa Alba, e sattera fuit de Santu Petru de Surake ... Testes Judike Barusone, Episcopu Jovanni de Galtellì, e Prite Petru I upu e Gosantine Troppis e prite Marchu e prite Natale e prite Gosantino Gulpio e prite Gomita Gatta e prite Comita Prias e Gerardu de Conettu ... e atteros rneta testes. Anno dom.milles.centes.septuag.tertio
  51. ^ Vois messer N. electu potestate assu regimentu dessa terra de Sassari daue su altu Cumone de Janna azes jurare a sancta dei evangelia, qui fina assu termen a bois ordinatu bene et lejalmente azes facher su offitiu potestaria in sa dicta terra de Sassari ...
  52. ^ Francesco Cesare Casula, La storia di Sardegna, 1994
  53. ^ Why is Catalan spoken in L'Alguer? - Corpus Oral de l'Alguerès
  54. ^ Carlo Maxia, Studi Sardo-Corsi, Dialettologia e storia della lingua fra le due isole
  55. ^ Incipit to "Lettera al Maestro" in "La Sardegna e la Corsica", Ines Loi Corvetto, Torino, UTET Libreria, 1993: Semper happisi desiggiu, Illustrissimu Segnore, de magnificare, & arrichire sa limba nostra Sarda; dessa matessi manera qui sa naturale insoro tottu sas naciones dessu mundu hant magnificadu & arrichidu; comente est de vider per isos curiosos de cuddas.
  56. ^  ... L'Alguer castillo fuerte bien murado / con frutales por tierra muy divinos / y por la mar coral fino eltremado / es ciudad de mas de mil vezinos...
  57. ^ Los diez libros de fortuna d'Amor (1573)
  58. ^ Storia della lingua sarda, vol. 3, a cura di Giorgia Ingrassia e Eduardo Blasco Ferrer
  59. ^ Juan Francisco Carmona Cagliari, 1610-1670, Alabança de San George obispu suelense: Citizen (in Spanish): “You, sheperd! What frightens you? Have you never seen some people gathering?”; Sheperd (in Sardinian): “Are you asking me if I'm married?”; Citizen (in Spanish): “You're not getting a grasp of what I say, do you? Oh, what an idiot shepherd!”; Sheperd (in Sardinian): “I'm actually thirsty and tired”; Citizen (in Spanish): “I'd better speak in Sardinian so that we understand each other better. (in Sardinian) Tell me, sheperd, where are you from?”; Pastor: “I'm from Suelli, my lord, I’ve been ordered to bring my lord a present”; Citizen: “Ah, now you understand what I said, don't you!””. (“Ciudadano: Que tiens pastor, de que te espantas? que nunca has visto pueblo congregado?; Pastor: E ite mi nais, si seu coiadu?; Ciudadano: Que no me entiendes? o, que pastor bozal aqui me vino; Pastor: A fidi tengu sidi e istau fadiau; Ciudadano: Mejor sera que en sardo tambien able pues algo dello se y nos oigamos. Nada mi su pastori de undi seis?; Pastor: De Suedi mi Sennori e m’anti cumandadu portari unu presenti a monsignori; Ciudadano: Jmoi jà mi jntendeis su que apu nadu”).
  60. ^ Jn Dei nomine Amen, noverint comente sende personalmente constituidos in presensia mia notariu et de sos testimongios infrascrittos sa viuda Caterina Casada et Coco mugere fuit de su Nigola Casada jàganu, Franziscu Casada et Joanne Casada Frades, filios de su dittu Nigola et Caterina Casada de sa presente cittade faguinde custas cosas gratis e de certa sciensia insoro, non per forza fraudu, malìssia nen ingannu nen pro nexuna attera sinistra macchinassione cun tottu su megius modu chi de derettu poden et deven, attesu et cunsideradu chi su dittu Nigola Casada esseret siguida dae algunos corpos chi li dein de notte, pro sa quale morte fettin querella et reclamo contra sa persona de Pedru Najtana, pro paura de sa justissia, si ausentait, in sa quale aussensia est dae unu annu pattinde multos dannos, dispesas, traballos e disusios.
  61. ^ M. Lepori, Dalla Spagna ai Savoia. Ceti e corona della Sardegna del Settecento (Rome, 2003)
  62. ^ Un arxipèlag invisible: la relació impossible de Sardenya i Còrsega sota nacionalismes, segles XVIII-XX - Marcel Farinelli, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Institut Universitari d'Història Jaume Vicens i Vives, pp.285
  63. ^ "Ichnussa - la biblioteca digitale della poesia sarda". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  64. ^ [ ...] Ciononostante le due opere dello Spano sono di straordinaria importanza, in quanto aprirono in Sardegna la discussione sul "problema della lingua sarda", quella che sarebbe dovuta essere la lingua unificata ed unificante, che si sarebbe dovuta imporre in tutta l'isola sulle particolarità dei singoli dialetti e suddialetti, la lingua della nazione sarda, con la quale la Sardegna intendeva inserirsi tra le altre nazioni europee, quelle che nell'Ottocento avevano già raggiunto o stavano per raggiungere la loro attuazione politica e culturale, compresa la nazione italiana. E proprio sulla falsariga di quanto era stato teorizzato ed anche attuato a favore della nazione italiana, che nell'Ottocento stava per portare a termine il processo di unificazione linguistica, elevando il dialetto fiorentino e toscano al ruolo di "lingua nazionale", chiamandolo "italiano illustre", anche in Sardegna l'auspicata "lingua nazionale sarda" fu denominata "sardo illustre". Massimo Pittau, Grammatica del sardo illustre, Nuoro, pp. 11–12
  65. ^ The phonology of Campidanian Sardinian : a unitary account of a self-organizing structure, Roberto Bolognesi, The Hague : Holland Academic Graphics
  66. ^ S'italianu in Sardìnnia , Amos Cardia, Iskra
  67. ^ "Limba Sarda 2.0S'italianu in Sardigna? Impostu a òbligu de lege cun Boginu - Limba Sarda 2.0". Limba Sarda 2.0. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  68. ^ "La limba proibita nella Sardegna del '700 da Ritorneremo, una storia tramandata oralmente". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  69. ^ [...]È tanto nativa per me la lingua italiana, come la latina, francese o altre forestiere che solo s’imparano in parte colla grammatica, uso e frequente lezione de’ libri, ma non si possiede appieno[...] said Andrea Manca Dell’Arca, agronomist from Sassari at the end of the 17th century (Ricordi di Santu Lussurgiu di Francesco Maria Porcu In Santu Lussurgiu dalle Origini alla "Grande Guerra" – Grafiche editoriali Solinas – Nuoro, 2005)
  70. ^ Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna (1848): Una innovazione in materia di incivilimento della Sardegna e d’istruzione pubblica, che sotto vari aspetti sarebbe importantissima, si è quella di proibire severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche, tranne le prediche, l’uso dei dialetti sardi, prescrivendo l’esclusivo impiego della lingua italiana… È necessario inoltre scemare l’uso del dialetto sardo ed introdurre quello della lingua italiana anche per altri non men forti motivi; ossia per incivilire alquanto quella nazione, sì affinché vi siano più universalmente comprese le istruzioni e gli ordini del Governo ...
  71. ^ L. Marroccu, Il ventennio fascista
  72. ^ M. Farinelli, The Invisible Motherland? The Catalan-Speaking Minority in Sardinia and Catalan Nationalism, pp.15
  73. ^ "Quando a scuola si insegnava la lingua sarda". Il Manifesto Sardo. 
  74. ^ Lussu became Lusso, and Pilu changed to Pilo; a large number of Sardinian surnames were affected by this policy.
  75. ^ Sardinia and the right to self-determination of peoples, Document to be presented to the European left University of Berlin – Enrico Lobina
  76. ^ "Lingua sarda: dall’interramento alla resurrezione?". Il Manifesto Sardo. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  77. ^ Lavinio, 1975, 2003
  78. ^ "Dispersione scolastica, a Sassari e Cagliari il (triste) record italiano". Sardiniapost.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  79. ^ Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche, Italian parliament 
  80. ^ "Il sardo è un dialetto. Campagna di boicottaggio contro l'editore Giunti". Sardiniapost.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  81. ^ "La lingua sarda a rischio estinzione – Disterraus sardus". 
  82. ^ ULS Planàrgia-Montiferru. "In sardu est prus bellu". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
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  84. ^ Giovanna Tonzanu, Sa limba sarda (article written in Italian)
  85. ^ La lingua sarda oggi: bilinguismo, problemi di identità culturale e realtà scolastica, Maurizio Virdis (Università di Cagliari)
  86. ^ The Sardinian professor fighting to save Gaelic – and all Europe's minority tongues, The Guardian
  87. ^ New research shows strong support for Sardinian - Eurolang
  88. ^ Compare Irish Gaeltacht (Edwards 1985)
  89. ^ "- Institut für Linguistik/Romanistik - Universität Stuttgart". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  90. ^ "Una breve introduzione alla "Questione della lingua sarda" - Etnie". Etnie. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  91. ^ "Sardinian language use survey". Euromosaic.  To access the data, click on List by languages, Sardinian, then scroll to "Sardinian language use survey".
  92. ^ Salminen, Tapani (1993–1999). "UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Europe:". Retrieved 2008-06-13. 
  93. ^ La Nuova Sardegna, 04/11/10, Per salvare i segni dell'identità – di Paolo Coretti
  94. ^ Ai docenti di sardo lezioni in italiano, Sardegna 24 – Cultura
  95. ^ Lingua e società in Sardegna – Mauro Maxia
  96. ^ Marco Oggianu (2006-12-21). "Sardinien: Ferienparadies oder stiller Tod eines Volkes?". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  97. ^ Damien Simonis (2003). Sardinia. Lonely Planet Publications. pp. 240–241. ISBN 9781740590334. 
  98. ^ Sardaigne
  99. ^ "404 Not Found-Regione Autonoma della Sardegna". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  100. ^ "L’Ue richiama l’Italia: non ha ancora firmato la Carta di tutela - Cronaca - Messaggero Veneto". Messaggero Veneto. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  101. ^ "Università contro spending review "Viene discriminato il sardo"". SassariNotizie.com. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  102. ^ redazione. "Il consiglio regionale si sveglia sulla tutela della lingua sarda". BuongiornoAlghero.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  103. ^ "Salviamo sardo e algherese in Parlamento". Alguer.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  104. ^ "Il sardo è un dialetto?". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  105. ^ Simone Tatti. "Do you speak... su Sardu?". focusardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  106. ^ "Cagliari, promosso a pieni voti il tredicenne che ha dato l'esame in sardo - Sardiniapost.it". Sardiniapost.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  107. ^ a b "Eleonora d'Arborea in sardo? La prof. "continentale" dice no - Sardiniapost.it". Sardiniapost.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  108. ^ "Esame di maturità per la limba". la Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  109. ^ "Quartu,esame di terza media in campidanese:studenti premiati in Comune". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  110. ^ "Studentessa dialoga in sardo con il presidente dei docenti". la Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  111. ^ Antonio Maccioni. "In sardo all’esame di maturità. La scelta di Lia Obinu al liceo scientifico di Bosa". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  112. ^ Studente sostiene l'esame di terza media su Grazia Deledda interamente in sardo, L'Unione Sarda, 2016
  113. ^ "Sardinian 'rebels' redraw island map". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
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  115. ^ "Su Google Maps spariscono i nomi delle città in sardo". la Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  116. ^ "Facebook in sardo: è possibile ottenerlo se noi tutti compiliamo la richiesta". 
  117. ^ "Come si mette la lingua sarda su Facebook". Giornalettismo. 
  118. ^ "Via alle traduzioni, Facebook in sardo sarà presto una realtà". 
  119. ^ Storia della lingua sarda, vol. 3, a cura di Giorgia Ingrassia e Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, CUEC, pp.227-230
  120. ^ Stranos Elementos, musica per dare voce al disagio sociale
  121. ^ Il passato che avanza a ritmo di rap - La Nuova Sardegna
  122. ^ Cori e rappers in limba alla Biennale - La Nuova Sardegna
  123. ^ La lingua sarda al cinema. Un’introduzione. Di Antioco Floris e Salvatore Pinna - UniCa
  124. ^ Storia della lingua sarda, vol. 3, a cura di Giorgia Ingrassia e Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, CUEC, pp.226
  125. ^ "Sardinia's parties strike deal to introduce Sardinian language teaching in schools". Nationalia. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  126. ^ "Proposta di legge n. 167 - XV Legislatura". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  127. ^ "Lingua sarda, dalla Regione 3 milioni di euro per insegnarla nelle scuole". Sardegna Oggi. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  128. ^ "I tedeschi studiano il sardo nell’isola". la Nuova Sardegna. 18 May 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  129. ^ "Studenti cechi imparano il sardo - Cronaca - la Nuova Sardegna". la Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  130. ^ "Ecco come insegno il sardo nella Repubblica Ceca". Sardiniapost.it. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  131. ^ "In città il professore giapponese che insegna la lingua sarda a Tokio". Archivio - La Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  132. ^ "Limba made in Japan". Archivio - La Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  133. ^ "Il professore giapponese che insegna il sardo ai sardi". Archivio - La Nuova Sardegna. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  134. ^ Inchiesta ISTAT (2000), pg. 105–107
  135. ^ "The internet as a Rescue Tool of Endangered Languages: Sardinian – Free University of Berlin" (PDF). 
  136. ^ IL VIDEO: Elisa, la studentessa cui è stata negata la tesina in sardo: "Semus in custa terra e no ischimus nudda" ("We live in this land and we don't know a thing about it")
  137. ^ "Caro Mastino, non negare l’evidenza: per te il sardo è una lingua morta. Che l’Università di Sassari vorrebbe insegnare come se fosse il latino". vitobiolchini. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
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  139. ^ "- Institut für Linguistik/Romanistik - Universität Stuttgart". Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  140. ^ "No al sardo in Rai, Pigliaru: "Discriminazione inaccettabile"". la Nuova Sardegna. 1 August 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  141. ^ "Bill excluding Sardinian, Friulian from RAI broadcasts sparks protest". Nationalia. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
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  143. ^ "Niente messa in limba, lettera al vescovo: "Perché non parlare in sardo?" - Sardiniapost.it". Sardiniapost.it. 
  144. ^ et ipso quoque sermo Sardorum adhuc retinetnon pauca verba sermonis graeci atque ipse loquentium sonum graecisanum quendam prae se fert – Roderigo Hunno Baeza, Caralis Panegyricus, about 1516, manuscript preserved in the University Library of Cagliari

References[edit]

  • Vincenzo Porru, Nou Dizionariu Universali Sardu-Italianu. Cagliari, 1832
  • Giovanni Spano, Ortografia Sarda Nazionale. Cagliari, Reale Stamperia, 1840.
  • Giovanni Spano, Vocabolario Sardo-Italiano e Italiano-Sardo. Cagliari: 1851–1852.
  • Max Leopold Wagner, Historische Lautlehre des Sardinischen, 1941.
  • Max Leopold Wagner. La lingua sarda. Storia, spirito e forma. Berna: 1950.
  • Max Leopold Wagner, Dizionario etimologico sardo, Heidelberg, 1960–1964.
  • Massimo Pittau, La lingua Sardiana o dei Protosardi, Cagliari, 1995
  • B. S. Kamps and Antonio Lepori, Sardisch fur Mollis & Muslis, Steinhauser, Wuppertal, 1985.
  • Shigeaki Sugeta, Su bocabolariu sinotticu nugoresu – giapponesu – italianu: sas 1500 paragulas fundamentales de sa limba sarda, Edizioni Della Torre, 2000
  • Shigeaki Sugeta, Cento tratti distintivi del sardo tra le lingue romanze: una proposta, 2010.
  • Salvatore Colomo, Vocabularieddu Sardu-Italianu / Italianu-Sardu.
  • Luigi Farina, Vocabolario Nuorese-Italiano e Bocabolariu Sardu Nugoresu-Italianu.
  • Michael Allan Jones, Sintassi della lingua sarda (Sardinian Syntax), Condaghes, Cagliari, 2003.
  • Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Linguistica sarda. Storia, metodi, problemi, Condaghes, Cagliari, 2003.
  • Roberto Bolognesi and Wilbert Heeringa, Sardegna tra tante lingue: il contatto linguistico in Sardegna dal Medioevo a oggi, Condaghes, Cagliari, 2005.
  • Roberto Bolognesi, Le identità linguistiche dei sardi, Condaghes
  • Roberto Bolognesi, The phonology of Campidanian Sardinian : a unitary account of a self-organizing structure, The Hague : Holland Academic Graphics
  • Amos Cardia, S'italianu in Sardìnnia, Iskra, 2006.
  • Amos Cardia, Apedala dimòniu, I sardi, Cagliari, 2002.
  • Francesco Casula, La Lingua sarda e l'insegnamento a scuola, Alfa, Quartu Sant'Elena, 2010.
  • Antonio Lepori, Stòria lestra de sa literadura sarda. De su Nascimentu a su segundu Otuxentus, C.R., Quartu S. Elena, 2005.
  • Antonio Lepori, Vocabolario moderno sardo-italiano: 8400 vocaboli, CUEC, Cagliari, 1980.
  • Antonio Lepori, Zibaldone campidanese, Castello, Cagliari, 1983.
  • Antonio Lepori, Fueddàriu campidanesu de sinònimus e contràrius, Castello, Cagliari, 1987.
  • Antonio Lepori, Dizionario Italiano-Sardo Campidanese, Castello, Cagliari, 1988.
  • Antonio Lepori, Gramàtiga sarda po is campidanesus, C.R., Quartu S. Elena, 2001.
  • Francesco Mameli, Il logudorese e il gallurese, Soter, 1998.
  • Alberto G. Areddu, Le origini "albanesi" della civiltà in Sardegna, Napoli 2007
  • Gerhard Rohlfs, Le Gascon, Tübingen, 1935.
  • Johannes Hubschmid, Sardische Studien, Bern, 1953.
  • Giulio Paulis, I nomi di luogo della Sardegna, Sassari, 1987.
  • Giulio Paulis, I nomi popolari delle piante in Sardegna, Sassari, 1992.
  • Massimo Pittau, I nomi di paesi città regioni monti fiumi della Sardegna, Cagliari, 1997.
  • Giuseppe Mercurio, S'allega baroniesa. La parlata sardo-baroniese, fonetica, morfologia, sintassi , Milano, 1997.
  • H.J. Wolf, Toponomastica barbaricina, Nuoro, 1998.
  • Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Storia della lingua sarda, Cagliari, 2009.
  • Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Paleosardo. Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica, Berlin, 2010.
  • Marcello Pili, Novelle lanuseine: poesie, storia, lingua, economia della Sardegna, La sfinge, Ariccia, 2004.
  • Michelangelo Pira, Sardegna tra due lingue, Della Torre, Cagliari, 1984.
  • Massimo Pittau, Grammatica del sardo-nuorese, Patron, Bologna, 1972.
  • Massimo Pittau, Grammatica della lingua sarda, Delfino, Sassari, 1991.
  • G. Mensching, 1992, Einführung in die sardische Sprache.
  • Massimo Pittau, Dizionario della lingua sarda: fraseologico ed etimologico, Gasperini, Cagliari, 2000/2003.
  • Antonino Rubattu, Dizionario universale della lingua di Sardegna, Edes, Sassari, 2003.
  • Antonino Rubattu, Sardo, italiano, sassarese, gallurese, Edes, Sassari, 2003.
  • Mauro Maxia, Lingua Limba Linga. Indagine sull’uso dei codici linguistici in tre comuni della Sardegna settentrionale, Cagliari, Condaghes 2006
  • Mauro Maxia, La situazione sociolinguistica della Sardegna settentrionale, in Sa Diversidade de sas Limbas in Europa, Itàlia e Sardigna, Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, Bilartzi 2010
  • Lucia Grimaldi, Code switching nel sardo – un segno di disintegrazione o di ristrutturazione socio-linguistica?, 2010.
  • Salvatore Tola, La letteratura in Lingua Sarda. Testi, autori, vicende, CUEC.

External links[edit]

Sardinian edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Media related to Sardinian language at Wikimedia Commons
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