COVID-19 pandemic
| COVID‑19 pandemic | |||||||
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 Confirmed cases per 100,000 population
as of 1 October 2020
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Clockwise, starting from top:
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| Disease | Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19) | ||||||
| Virus strain | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)[a] | ||||||
| Source | Probably via bats, possibly via pangolins[2][3] | ||||||
| Location | Worldwide | ||||||
| First outbreak | Wuhan, China[4] | ||||||
| Index case | Wuhan, Hubei, China 30°37′11″N 114°15′28″E / 30.61972°N 114.25778°E | ||||||
| Arrival date | Between 6 October 2019 and 11 December 2019[5] | ||||||
| Date | 31 December 2019[4] – present (10 months and 1 day) | ||||||
| Confirmed cases | 34,345,342[6] | ||||||
| Active cases | 9,431,165[6] (28.1% of confirmed cases as of 24 September) | ||||||
| Recovered | 23,890,360[6] | ||||||
Deaths | 1,023,817[6] | ||||||
Territories | 188[6] | ||||||
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The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).[1] The disease was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China,[4] became a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in January 2020, and recognised as a pandemic in March 2020. As of 2 October 2020, more than 34.3 million cases have been reported worldwide, although the true number of cases are likely to be more higher.[7] A more reliable indicator for case spread is the more than 1.02 million deaths attributed to COVID-19.[6]
Common symptoms include fever, cough, fatigue, shortness of breath or breathing difficulties, and loss of smell. Complications may include pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The incubation period is typically around five days but may range from one to 14 days.[13] There are several vaccine candidates in development, although none have completed clinical trials to prove their safety and efficacy. There is no known specific antiviral medication, so primary treatment is currently symptomatic.[14]
Recommended preventive measures include hand washing, covering mouth when sneezing or coughing, social distancing, wearing a face mask in public, disinfecting surfaces, ventilating and air-filtering, and monitoring and self-isolation for people who suspect they may be infected. Authorities worldwide have responded by implementing travel restrictions, lockdowns, workplace hazard controls, and facility closures to slow the spread of the disease. Many places have also worked to increase testing capacity and trace contacts of the infected.
The pandemic has caused global social and economic disruption, including the largest global recession since the Great Depression.[15] According to estimations, up to 100 million people have fallen into extreme poverty[16] and global famines are affecting 130 million people.[17] It has led to the postponement or cancellation of events,[18] widespread supply shortages exacerbated by panic buying,[19][20] and decreased emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases.[21][22] Educational institutions have been partially or fully closed, with many switching online, although some have been reopened. Misinformation about the virus has circulated through social media and mass media.[23] There have been many incidents of xenophobia and racism against Chinese people and against those perceived as being Chinese or as being from areas with high infection rates.[24]
Epidemiology
Background
On 31 December 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) received reports of a cluster of viral pneumonia cases of an unknown cause in Wuhan, Hubei,[25] and an investigation was launched at the start of January 2020.[26] On 30 January, with 7,818 confirmed cases across 19 countries, the WHO declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC).[27][28]
Several early infected people had visited Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market;[29] the virus is therefore thought to be of zoonotic origin.[30] The virus that caused the outbreak is known as SARS-CoV-2, a newly discovered virus closely related to bat coronaviruses,[31] pangolin coronaviruses,[32][33] and SARS-CoV.[34] The scientific consensus is that COVID-19 has a natural origin.[35][36] The probable bat-to-human infection may have been among people processing bat carcasses and guano in the production of traditional Chinese medicines.[37]
The earliest known person with symptoms was later discovered to have fallen ill on 1 December 2019, and that person did not have visible connections with the later wet market cluster.[38][39] Of the early cluster of cases reported that month, two-thirds were found to have a link with the market.[40][41][42] On 13 March 2020, an unverified report from the South China Morning Post suggested a case traced back to 17 November 2019 (a 55-year-old from Hubei) may have been the first person infected.[43][44] Phylogenic estimates in genetic studies conducted in early 2020 indicate that the SARS-CoV-2 virus likely jumped into the human population sometime between 6 October 2019 and 11 December 2019.[5]
The WHO recognised the spread of COVID-19 as a pandemic on 11 March 2020[45] as Italy, Iran, South Korea, and Japan reported surging numbers of cases. Later that month, the number of cases outside of China quickly surpassed the number of cases inside China.[46]
Cases
Official case counts refer to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19 and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols.[47][48] Many countries, early on, had official policies to not test those with only mild symptoms.[49][50] An analysis of the early phase of the outbreak up to 23 January estimated 86 percent of COVID-19 infections had not been detected, and that these undocumented infections were the source for 79 percent of documented cases.[51] Several other studies, using a variety of methods, have estimated that numbers of infections in many countries are likely to be considerably greater than the reported cases.[52][53]
On 9 April 2020, preliminary results found that 15 percent of people tested in Gangelt, the centre of a major infection cluster in Germany, tested positive for antibodies.[54] Screening for COVID-19 in pregnant women in New York City, and blood donors in the Netherlands, has also found rates of positive antibody tests that may indicate more infections than reported.[55][56] Seroprevalence based estimates are conservative as some studies shown that persons with mild symptoms do not have detectable antibodies.[57] Some results (such as the Gangelt study) have received substantial press coverage without first passing through peer review.[58]
Analysis by age in China indicates that a relatively low proportion of cases occur in individuals under 20.[59] It is not clear whether this is because young people are less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop serious symptoms and seek medical attention and be tested.[60] A retrospective cohort study in China found that children and adults were just as likely to be infected.[61]
Initial estimates of the basic reproduction number (R0) for COVID-19 in January were between 1.4 and 2.5,[62] but a subsequent analysis concluded that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95 percent confidence interval of 3.8 to 8.9).[63] R0 can vary across populations and is not to be confused with the effective reproduction number (commonly just called R), which takes into account effects such as social distancing and herd immunity. By mid-May 2020, the effective R was close to or below 1.0 in many countries, meaning the spread of the disease in these areas at that time was stable or decreasing.[64]
Epidemic curve of daily new cases of COVID-19 (7 day rolling average) by continent
Semi-log plot of weekly new cases of COVID-19 in the world and top five current countries (mean with deaths)
COVID-19 total cases per 100 000 population from selected countries[65]
COVID-19 active cases per 100 000 population from selected countries[65]
Deaths
While the numbers vary significantly by age and location, more than 95% of the people who contract COVID-19 worldwide recover. For those who do not, the time between the onset of symptoms and death usually ranges from 6 to 41 days, typically about 14 days.[66] As of 2 October 2020, approximately 1.02 million[6] deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. In China, as of 14 June[update], about 80 percent of deaths were recorded in those aged over 60, and 75 percent had pre-existing health conditions including cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.[67] Individuals of any age with COPD, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and other underlying health conditions are at increased risk of severe illness from COVID-19.[68][69]
On 24 March 2020, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention changed criteria for attributing deaths to COVID-19 to include those marked “probable” or “likely” COVID–19 on death certificates. The CDC noted that "It Is not likely that [the CDC's National Center for Health Statistics] will follow up on these cases" and also that while the "underlying cause depends upon what and where conditions are reported on the death certificate, … the rules for coding and selection of the underlying cause of death are expected to result in COVID–19 being the underlying cause more often than not."[70]
In August 2020, the CDC reported that in the United States 94 percent of COVID-19 death certificates listed at least one comorbidity.[71] The reported comorbidities include symptoms caused by COVID-19 infection which contributed to the fatality in addition to pre-existing health conditions.[72] On 92% of American death certificates listing COVID-19 as a cause of death, COVID-19 was listed as “the condition that began the chain of events that ultimately led to the person’s death”.[73]
The first confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020.[74] The first reported death outside of China occurred on 1 February in the Philippines,[75] and the first reported death outside Asia was in France on 14 February.[76] Post-mortem analysis of tissue samples has identified earlier deaths due to COVID-19 which went undetected at the time, including a California woman who died on 6 February.[77]
Official deaths from COVID-19 generally refer to people who died after testing positive according to protocols. This may ignore deaths of people who die without having been tested.[78] Conversely, deaths of people who had underlying conditions may lead to over-counting.[79] Comparison of statistics for deaths for all causes versus the seasonal average indicates excess mortality in many countries.[80][81] In the worst affected areas, mortality has been several times higher than average. In New York City, deaths have been four times higher than average, in Paris twice as high, and in many European countries, deaths have been on average 20 to 30 percent higher than normal.[80] This excess mortality may include deaths due to strained healthcare systems and bans on elective surgery.[82]
Multiple measures are used to quantify mortality.[83] These numbers vary by region and over time, influenced by testing volume, healthcare system quality, treatment options, government response,[84][85][86] time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health.[87] Some countries (like Belgium) include deaths from suspected cases of COVID-19, regardless of whether the person was tested, resulting in higher numbers compared to countries that include only test-confirmed cases.[88]
The death-to-case ratio reflects the number of deaths attributed to COVID-19 divided by the number of diagnosed cases within a given time interval. Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global death-to-case ratio is 3.0 percent (1,023,817 deaths for 34,345,342 cases) as of 2 October 2020.[6] The number varies by region.[89]
The most important metric in assessing death rate is 'infection fatality ratio’ (IFR),[90][c] the deaths attributed to disease divided by the number of infected individuals to-date (symptomatic and asymptomatic).[92] The CDC's ‘best estimate’ IFR for the U.S. by age bracket is 0.003% for 0-19 years; 0.02% for 20-49 years; 0.5% for 50-69 years; and 5.4% for 70+ years.[93][d] The University of Oxford's Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) has estimated global IFR at between 0.10% to 0.41% (last revised 2 May), acknowledging that this will vary between populations due to differences in demographics.[95] CEBM researchers have noted a decrease in IFR in England over time;[96][e] and, for the UK and Italy (the two Europeans nations worst hit by COVID-19), attribute the rise in daily cases, stability in daily deaths, and shift of cases to a younger population to waning viral circulation, misapplication of testing, and misinterpretation of test results rather than to prevention, treatment, or virus mutation.[97]
The WHO reported serology testing for three locations in Europe (with some data through 2 June) that show IFR estimates converging at approximately 0.5-1%.[91] A summary review in BMJ has noted that while some "serological tests … might be cheaper and easier to implement at the point of care [than RT-PCR]", and such testing can identify previously infected individuals, "caution is warranted … using serological tests for … epidemiological surveillance". The review called for higher quality studies assessing accuracy with reference to a standard of "RT-PCR performed on at least two consecutive specimens, and, when feasible, includ[ing] viral cultures."[98][99] CEBM researchers have called for in-hospital 'case definition' to record "CT lung findings and associated blood tests"[100] and for the WHO to produce a "protocol to standardise the use and interpretation of PCR" with continuous re-calibration.[101]
Semi-log plot of weekly deaths due to COVID-19 in the world and top five current countries (mean with cases)
COVID-19 deaths per 100 000 population from selected countries[102]
Transmission
The modes of spread of COVID‑19, a new disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, are under research and investigation. It spreads from person to person, via several different modes, mainly when people are in close proximity to one another.[103] It spreads very easily and sustainably, with one infected person generally infecting between 2 and 3 others.[103] This is more infectious than influenza, but less so than measles.[103][104] It can transmit when people are symptomatic, also for up to two days prior to developing symptoms, and even if a person never shows symptoms.[105][103] People remain infectious in moderate cases for 7-12 days, and up to two weeks in severe cases.[105]
The disease seems to spread mainly after an infected person breathes, coughs, sneezes, talks or sings.[103] Actions such as these produce contaminated droplets, which travel through the air, land on the mouths or noses of others close by, and can be inhaled into the lungs, thereby causing new infection.[103] Many of these droplets are too heavy to linger in the air and fall to the ground.[106] However smaller droplets become airborne, suspended in the air for longer periods of time.[103][107][108] The relative importance of the smaller aerosols (known as droplet nuclei, which cause airborne disease) is unknown.[103] Airborne transmission occurs particularly in crowded and less ventilated indoor spaces, which are particularly effective for transmitting the virus, such as restaurants, nightclubs, public transport and gatherings such as funerals.[108][106][103] It also can occur in the healthcare setting, where certain medical procedures performed on COVID-19 patients generate aerosols.
It may be possible that a person can get COVID-19 through indirect contact by touching a contaminated surface or object, and then touching their own mouth, nose, or possibly their eyes, though this is not thought to be the main way the virus spreads, and it has not been conclusively demonstrated.[103] Kissing, physical intimacy and other forms of direct contact can easily transmit the virus and thus lead to COVID-19 in people exposed to such contact.
Social distancing and the wearing of cloth face masks, surgical masks, respirators, or other face coverings are controls for droplet transmission. Transmission may be decreased indoors with well maintained heating and ventilation systems to maintain good air circulation and increase the use of outdoor air.[103]
There currently is no significant evidence of COVID-19 virus transmission through feces, urine, breast milk, food, wastewater, drinking water, animal disease vectors, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, although research is ongoing and caution is advised.Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of COVID-19 can be relatively non-specific; the two most common symptoms are fever (88 percent) and dry cough (68 percent). Less common symptoms include fatigue, respiratory sputum production (phlegm), loss of the sense of smell, loss of taste, shortness of breath, muscle and joint pain, sore throat, headache, chills, vomiting, coughing out blood, diarrhea, and rash.[110][111][112]
Among those who develop symptoms, approximately one in five may become more seriously ill and have difficulty breathing.[113] Emergency symptoms include difficulty breathing, persistent chest pain or pressure, sudden confusion, difficulty waking, and bluish face or lips; immediate medical attention is advised if these symptoms are present.[112] Further development of the disease can lead to complications including pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, septic shock, and kidney failure.[111]
Cause
Virology
| Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 | |
|---|---|
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| Transmission electron micrograph of SARS-CoV-2 virions with visible coronae | |
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| Illustration of a SARS-CoV-2 virion[114] Grey coating: the envelope, composed mainly of lipids, which can be destroyed with alcohol or soap[114] Yellow deposits: envelope proteins (E)[114]
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Virus classification 
| |
| (unranked): | Virus |
| Realm: | Riboviria |
| Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
| Phylum: | Pisuviricota |
| Class: | Pisoniviricetes |
| Order: | Nidovirales |
| Family: | Coronaviridae |
| Genus: | Betacoronavirus |
| Subgenus: | Sarbecovirus |
| Species: | |
| Strain: | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
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| Synonyms | |
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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)[115][116] is the strain of coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the respiratory illness responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Colloquially known as simply the coronavirus, it was previously referred to by its provisional name, 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV),[117][118][119][120] and has also been called human coronavirus 2019 (HCoV-19 or hCoV-19).[121][122][123][124] The World Health Organization declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 30 January 2020, and a pandemic on 11 March 2020.[125][126]
SARS-CoV-2 is a Baltimore class IV[127] positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus[128] that is contagious in humans.[129] As described by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, it is the successor to SARS-CoV-1,[123][130] the strain that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak.
Taxonomically, SARS-CoV-2 is a strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV).[115] It is believed to have zoonotic origins and has close genetic similarity to bat coronaviruses, suggesting it emerged from a bat-borne virus.[131][132][133][122] There is no evidence yet to link an intermediate animal reservoir, such as a pangolin, to its introduction to humans.[134][135] The virus shows little genetic diversity, indicating that the spillover event introducing SARS-CoV-2 to humans is likely to have occurred in late 2019.[136]
Epidemiological studies estimate each infection results in 5.7 new ones when no members of the community are immune and no preventive measures taken.[137] The virus primarily spreads between people through close contact and via respiratory droplets produced from coughs or sneezes.[138][139] It mainly enters human cells by binding to the receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2).[131][140][141][142]Diagnosis
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COVID-19 can provisionally be diagnosed on the basis of symptoms and confirmed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) testing of infected secretions or CT imaging of the chest.[143][144]
On 29 September, a letter in Lancet highlighted the increasing likelihood of overestimating of COVID-19 incidence as more asymptomatic people are included in RT-PCR testing with consequent "misdirection of policies regarding lockdowns and school closures," noting that the false-positive rate in the UK is currently unknown, with "preliminary estimates … somewhere between 0·8% and 4·0%".[145][146] The letter called for "stricter standards … in laboratory testing, … and pretest probability assessments … [including] symptoms, previous medical history of COVID-19 or presence of antibodies, any potential exposure to COVID-19, and likelihood of an alternative diagnosis."[147]
Viral testing
The standard test for presence of SARS-CoV-2 uses RNA testing of respiratory secretions collected using a nasopharyngeal swab, though it is possible to test other samples. This test uses real-time rRT-PCR which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments.[148] As this test detects RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited."[149] Positive tests have been shown not to correlate with future excess deaths.[150]
A number of laboratories and companies have developed serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to infection.[151] Several have been evaluated by Public Health England and approved for use in the UK.[152]
On 22 June 2020, UK health secretary Matt Hancock announced the country would conduct a new "spit test" for COVID-19 on 14,000 key workers and their families in Southampton, having them spit in a pot, which was collected by Southampton University, with results expected within 48 hours. Hancock said the test was easier than using swabs and could enable people to conduct it at home.[153]
The University of Oxford's Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) has pointed to mounting evidence[154][155] that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with" and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing"[156] On 7 September, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results."[157]
Imaging
Characteristic imaging features on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of people who are symptomatic include asymmetric peripheral ground-glass opacities without pleural effusions.[158] Many groups have created COVID-19 datasets that include imagery such as the Italian Radiological Society which has compiled an international online database of imaging findings for confirmed cases.[159] Due to overlap with other infections such as adenovirus, imaging without confirmation by rRT-PCR is of limited specificity in identifying COVID-19.[158] A large study in China compared chest CT results to PCR and demonstrated that though imaging is less specific for the infection, it is faster and more sensitive.[144]
Prevention
Strategies for preventing transmission of the disease include physical distancing, wearing of masks, washing hands, avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands, and coughing or sneezing into a tissue, and putting the tissue directly into a waste container.[160][161][162][163]
Social distancing
Social distancing (also known as physical distancing) includes infection control actions intended to slow the spread of disease by minimising close contact between individuals. Methods include quarantines; travel restrictions; and the closing of schools, workplaces, stadiums, theatres, or shopping centres. Individuals may apply social distancing methods by staying at home, limiting travel, avoiding crowded areas, using no-contact greetings, and physically distancing themselves from others.[161][164][165] Many governments are now mandating or recommending social distancing in regions affected by the outbreak.[166][167] Non-cooperation with distancing measures in some areas has contributed to the further spread of the pandemic.[168]
The maximum gathering size recommended by U.S. government bodies and health organisations was swiftly reduced from 250 people (if there were no known COVID-19 spread in a region) to 50 people, and later to 10.[169] On 22 March 2020, Germany banned public gatherings of more than two people.[170] A Cochrane review found that early quarantine with other public health measures are effective in limiting the pandemic, but the best manner of adopting and relaxing policies are uncertain, as local conditions vary.[165]
Older adults and those with underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, respiratory disease, hypertension, and compromised immune systems face increased risk of serious illness and complications and have been advised by the CDC to stay home as much as possible in areas of community outbreak.[171][172]
In late March 2020, the WHO and other health bodies began to replace the use of the term "social distancing" with "physical distancing", to clarify that the aim is to reduce physical contact while maintaining social connections, either virtually or at a distance. The use of the term "social distancing" had led to implications that people should engage in complete social isolation, rather than encouraging them to stay in contact through alternative means.[173][174] Some authorities have issued sexual health guidelines for the pandemic, which include recommendations to have sex only with someone you live with, and who does not have the virus or symptoms of the virus.[175][176]
Face masks and respiratory hygiene
The CDC and WHO recommend individuals wear non-medical face coverings in public settings where there is an increased risk of transmission and where social distancing measures are difficult to maintain.[177][178][179] This recommendation is meant to reduce the spread of the disease by asymptomatic and pre-symtomatic individuals and is complementary to established preventive measures such as social distancing.[178][180] Face coverings limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, breathing, and coughing.[178][180] Many countries and local jurisdictions encourage or mandate the use of face masks or cloth face coverings by members of the public to limit the spread of the virus.[181][182]
Masks are also strongly recommended for those who may have been infected and those taking care of someone who may have the disease.[183] When not wearing a mask, the CDC recommends covering the mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing and recommends using the inside of the elbow if no tissue is available.[160] Proper hand hygiene after any cough or sneeze is encouraged.[160] Healthcare professionals interacting directly with COVID-19 patients are advised to use respirators at least as protective as NIOSH-certified N95 or equivalent, in addition to other personal protective equipment.[184]
Self-isolation
Self-isolation at home has been recommended for those diagnosed with COVID-19 and those who suspect they have been infected. Health agencies have issued detailed instructions for proper self-isolation.[186][187]
Many governments have mandated or recommended self-quarantine for entire populations.[188][189] The strongest self-quarantine instructions have been issued to those in high-risk groups.[190] Those who may have been exposed to someone with COVID-19 and those who have recently travelled to a country or region with the widespread transmission have been advised to self-quarantine for 14 days from the time of last possible exposure.[113][191][192]
Ventilation and air filtration
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends ventilation in public spaces to help clear out infectious aerosols, as well several others, including those regarding air filtration.[193][194]
Hand washing
Hand washing is recommended to prevent the spread of the disease. The CDC recommends that people wash hands often with soap and water for at least twenty seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty; before eating; and after blowing one's nose, coughing, or sneezing. This is because outside the human body, the virus is killed by household soap, which bursts its protective bubble.[195] In addition, soap and water disrupts the sticky bond between pathogens and human skin which causes the coronavirus pathogen to slide off the hands/body.[196] CDC has recommended using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with at least 60 percent alcohol by volume when soap and water are not readily available.[160] The WHO advises people to avoid touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.[161][197] It is not clear whether washing hands with ash, if soap is not available, is effective at reducing the spread of viral infections.[198]
Surface cleaning
Surfaces may be decontaminated with a number of solutions (within one minute of exposure to the disinfectant for a stainless steel surface), including 62–71 percent ethanol, 50–100 percent isopropanol, 0.1 percent sodium hypochlorite, 0.5 percent hydrogen peroxide, and 0.2–7.5 percent povidone-iodine. Other solutions, such as benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine gluconate, are less effective.[199] Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation may also be used.[193] The CDC recommends that if a COVID-19 case is suspected or confirmed at a facility such as an office or day care, all areas such as offices, bathrooms, common areas, shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, remote controls, and ATM machines used by the ill persons should be disinfected.[200]
Vaccine
Mitigation
Screening, containment and mitigation
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Strategies in the control of an outbreak are screening, containment (or suppression), and mitigation. Screening is done with a device such as a thermometer to detect the elevated body temperature associated with fevers caused by the coronavirus.[209] Containment is undertaken in the early stages of the outbreak and aims to trace and isolate those infected as well as introduce other measures to stop the disease from spreading. When it is no longer possible to contain the disease, efforts then move to the mitigation stage: measures are taken to slow the spread and mitigate its effects on the healthcare system and on society. A combination of both containment and mitigation measures may be undertaken at the same time.[210] Suppression requires more extreme measures so as to reverse the pandemic by reducing the basic reproduction number to less than 1.[211]
Part of managing an infectious disease outbreak is trying to delay and decrease the epidemic peak, known as flattening the epidemic curve.[205] This decreases the risk of health services being overwhelmed and provides more time for vaccines and treatments to be developed.[205] Non-pharmaceutical interventions that may manage the outbreak include personal preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing face masks, and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at physical distancing such as closing schools and cancelling mass gathering events; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such surface cleaning.[212]
More drastic actions aimed at containing the outbreak were taken in China once the severity of the outbreak became apparent, such as quarantining entire cities and imposing strict travel bans.[213] Other countries also adopted a variety of measures aimed at limiting the spread of the virus. South Korea introduced mass screening and localised quarantines and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. Singapore provided financial support for those infected who quarantined themselves and imposed large fines for those who failed to do so. Taiwan increased face mask production and penalised hoarding of medical supplies.[214]
Simulations for Great Britain and the United States show that mitigation (slowing but not stopping epidemic spread) and suppression (reversing epidemic growth) have major challenges. Optimal mitigation policies might reduce peak healthcare demand by two-thirds and deaths by half, but still result in hundreds of thousands of deaths and overwhelmed health systems. Suppression can be preferred but needs to be maintained for as long as the virus is circulating in the human population (or until a vaccine becomes available), as transmission otherwise quickly rebounds when measures are relaxed. Long-term intervention to suppress the pandemic has considerable social and economic costs.[211]
Contact tracing
Contact tracing is an important method for health authorities to determine the source of infection and to prevent further transmission.[215] The use of location data from mobile phones by governments for this purpose has prompted privacy concerns, with Amnesty International and more than a hundred other organisations issuing a statement calling for limits on this kind of surveillance.[216]
Several mobile apps have been implemented or proposed for voluntary use, and as of 7 April 2020 more than a dozen expert groups were working on privacy-friendly solutions such as using Bluetooth to log a user's proximity to other cellphones.[216] (Users are alerted if they have been near someone who subsequently tests positive.)[216]
On 10 April 2020, Google and Apple jointly announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing based on Bluetooth technology and cryptography.[217][218] The system is intended to allow governments to create official privacy-preserving coronavirus tracking apps, with the eventual goal of integration of this functionality directly into the iOS and Android mobile platforms.[219] In Europe and in the U.S., Palantir Technologies is also providing COVID-19 tracking services.[220]
Health care
Increasing capacity and adapting healthcare for the needs of COVID-19 patients is described by the WHO as a fundamental outbreak response measure.[221] The ECDC and the European regional office of the WHO have issued guidelines for hospitals and primary healthcare services for shifting of resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards COVID-19 testing, cancelling elective procedures whenever possible, separating and isolating COVID-19 positive patients, and increasing intensive care capabilities by training personnel and increasing the number of available ventilators and beds.[221][222] In addition, in an attempt to maintain physical distancing, and to protect both patients and clinicians, in some areas non-emergency healthcare services are being provided virtually.[223][224][225]
Due to capacity limitations in the standard supply chains, some manufacturers are 3D printing healthcare material such as nasal swabs and ventilator parts.[226][227] In one example, when an Italian hospital urgently required a ventilator valve, and the supplier was unable to deliver in the timescale required, a local startup received legal threats due to alleged patent infringement after reverse-engineering and printing the required hundred valves overnight.[228][229][230] On 23 April 2020, NASA reported building, in 37 days, a ventilator which is currently undergoing further testing. NASA is seeking fast-track approval.[231][232]
Treatment
Antiviral medications are under investigation for COVID-19, though none have yet been shown to be clearly effective on mortality in published randomised controlled trials.[233] However, remdesivir may affect the time it takes to recover from the virus.[234] Emergency use authorisation for remdesivir was granted in the U.S. on 1 May, for people hospitalised with severe COVID-19.[235] The interim authorisation was granted considering the lack of other specific treatments, and that its potential benefits appear to outweigh the potential risks.[235][236]
Taking over-the-counter cold medications,[237] drinking fluids, and resting may help alleviate symptoms.[160] Depending on the severity, oxygen therapy, intravenous fluids, and breathing support may be required.[238] The safety and effectiveness of convalescent plasma as a treatment option requires further research.[239]
Other trials are investigating whether existing medications can be used effectively against COVID-19 or the immune reaction to it.[233][240] On 16 June, the RECOVERY Trial group released a statement that their preliminary results show low dose dexamethasone reduces mortality in patients receiving respiratory support,[241] though previous reviews had suggested the use of steroids may worsen outcomes.[242] Demand for dexamethasone surged after publication of the preprint.[243] On 2 September, the WHO recommended treatment with systemic steroids for patients with severe and critical symptoms, but continued to advise against their use for other patients.[244]
A study of major hospitals in the U.S. found that abnormal liver tests occurred in most hospitalized patients with COVID-19 and may be associated with poorer clinical outcomes.[245] Tocilizumab was significantly associated in the relationship between the drugs used to treat the disease and abnormal liver tests, which prompted studies to determine whether abnormal results were due to coronavirus or drug-induced liver injury, according to Michael Nathanson, director of the Yale Liver Center and co-author of the study.[246]
History
2019
There are several theories about when and where the very first case (the so-called patient zero) originated.[247] According to Chinese government data seen by the South China Morning Post, the first case can be traced back to 17 November 2019; the person was a 55-year-old citizen in the Hubei province. There were four men and five women reported to be infected in November, but none of them was "patient zero."[43] Based on the retrospective analysis, starting from December, the number of coronavirus cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching 60 by 20 December and at least 266 by 31 December.[43]
According to official Chinese sources, these early cases were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals.[30] However, in May 2020, George Gao, the director of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating the market was not the source of the initial outbreak.[248]
On 24 December, Wuhan Central Hospital sent a bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) sample from an unresolved clinical case to sequencing company Vision Medicals. On 27 and 28 December, Vision Medicals informed the Wuhan Central Hospital and the Chinese CDC of the results of the test, showing a new coronavirus.[249] A pneumonia cluster of unknown cause was observed on 26 December and treated by the doctor Zhang Jixian in Hubei Provincial Hospital, who informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December.[250]
On 30 December 2019, a test report addressed to Wuhan Central Hospital, from company CapitalBio Medlab, stated that there was an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing a group of doctors at Wuhan Central Hospital to alert their colleagues and relevant hospital authorities of the result. Eight of those doctors, including Li Wenliang (who was also punished on 3 January),[251] were later admonished by the police for spreading false rumours; and another doctor, Ai Fen, was reprimanded by her superiors for raising the alarm.[252] That evening, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission issued a notice to various medical institutions about "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause".[253] The next day, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission made the first public announcement of a pneumonia outbreak of unknown cause, confirming 27 cases[25][254][255]—enough to trigger an investigation.[26]
2020
During the early stages of the outbreak, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days.[256] In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration and Wuhan being a transport hub and major rail interchange.[257] On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new cases in one day, including two people in Beijing and one in Shenzhen.[258] A retrospective official study published in March found that 6,174 people had already developed symptoms by 20 January (most of them would be diagnosed later)[259] and more may have been infected.[260] A report in The Lancet on 24 January indicated human transmission, strongly recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and said testing for the virus was essential due to its "pandemic potential".[40][261] On 30 January, the WHO declared the coronavirus a public health emergency of international concern.[260]
On 31 January 2020, Italy had its first confirmed cases, two tourists from China.[262] As of 13 March 2020, the WHO considered Europe the active centre of the pandemic.[263] On 19 March 2020, Italy overtook China as the country with the most reported deaths.[264] By 26 March, the United States had overtaken China and Italy with the highest number of confirmed cases in the world.[265] Research on coronavirus genomes indicates the majority of COVID-19 cases in New York came from European travellers, rather than directly from China or any other Asian country.[266] Retesting of prior samples found a person in France who had the virus on 27 December 2019[267][268] and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6 February 2020.[269]
On 11 June 2020, after 55 days without a locally transmitted case being officially reported,[270] the city of Beijing reported a single COVID-19 case, followed by two more cases on 12 June.[271] As of 15 June, 79 cases were officially confirmed.[272] Most of these patients went to Xinfadi Wholesale Market.[270][273]
On 29 June 2020, WHO warned that the spread of the virus is still accelerating as countries reopen their economies, although many countries have made progress in slowing down the spread.[274]
On 15 July 2020, one COVID-19 case was officially reported in Dalian in more than three months.[275] The patient did not travel outside the city in the 14 days before developing symptoms, nor did he have contact with people from "areas of attention."[275]
As of 2 October 2020, more than 34.3 million cases have been reported worldwide; more than 1.02 million people have died and more than 23.8 million have recovered.[276]
National responses
A total of 188[6] countries and territories have had at least one case of COVID-19 so far. Due to the pandemic in Europe, many countries in the Schengen Area have restricted free movement and set up border controls.[277] National reactions have included containment measures such as quarantines and curfews (known as stay-at-home orders, shelter-in-place orders, or lockdowns).[278]
By 26 March, 1.7 billion people worldwide were under some form of lockdown,[279] which increased to 3.9 billion people by the first week of April—more than half the world's population.[280][281]
By late April, around 300 million people were under lockdown in nations of Europe, including but not limited to Italy, Spain, France, and the United Kingdom, while around 200 million people were under lockdown in Latin America.[282] Nearly 300 million people, or about 90 percent of the population, were under some form of lockdown in the United States,[283] around 100 million people in the Philippines,[282] about 59 million people in South Africa,[284] and 1.3 billion people have been under lockdown in India.[285][286] On 21 May 100,000 new infections occurred worldwide, the most since the start of the pandemic, while overall 5 million cases were surpassed.[287]
Asia
As of 19 May 2020[update], cases have been reported in all Asian countries except for Turkmenistan and North Korea, although these countries likely also have cases.[288][289] Despite being the first area of the world hit by the outbreak, the early wide-scale response of some Asian states, particularly Mongolia,[290] South Korea,[291] Taiwan,[292] and Vietnam,[293] has allowed them to fare comparatively well.
China
{{#ifeq:Summary|Summary|The COVID-19 pandemic originated with a cluster of mysterious, suspected pneumonia cases in the city of Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China. A Wuhan hospital notified the local center for disease control and prevention (CDC) and health commissions on 27 December 2019. On 31 December, the Wuhan CDC disclosed to the media that there was a cluster of unknown pneumonia cases related to Huanan Seafood Market after the unverified documents appeared on the Internet. The potential disease outbreak soon drew nationwide attention including that of the National Health Commission (NHC) in Beijing who sent experts to Wuhan on the following day. Chinese authorities formally notified the World Health Organization on this same day.[294] On 8 January 2020, a new coronavirus was identified as the cause of the pneumonia.[295] The sequence of the virus was soon published on an open-access database.[296]
Public and media criticism has labeled responses by the Wuhan and Hubei authorities as delayed and as failing to contain the outbreak in its early stage.[297] By 29 January, the virus spread to all provinces of mainland China.[298][299][300] All provinces of mainland China initiated the highest response level to public health emergency.[301] The World Health Organization declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 31 January,[300] citing reasons of spread in other countries, particularly those without robust healthcare systems.[302][303] By 8 February, over 724 died from the coronavirus infection-associated pneumonia and 34,878 were confirmed to have been infected. In Hubei alone, there were 24,953 cases of infections and 699 related deaths.[304]
The Chinese government may have censored discussions about the outbreak since the beginning of its spread.[305][306] On 25 January, Chinese Communist Party General Secretary Xi Jinping warned about a "grave situation" facing China.[307][308] The Party Politburo formed a special leading group for epidemic control, led by Premier Li Keqiang. The 25 January Chinese New Year celebrations were cancelled. Passengers across the country have been checked for their temperatures.[309] Commands for epidemic control (CEC) have been formed in different regions including Wuhan and Hubei. Many inter-province bus services[310] and railway services have been suspended.[311] By 29 January, all Hubei cities were quarantined.[312] Curfew laws were implemented in Huanggang, Wenzhou,[313] and other mainland cities.[314] In February 2020, the region also saw a huge shortage of face masks and other protective gear despite itself being the world's manufacturing hub for these products.[315] Other countries donated medical supplies to help China deal with the epidemic.[316][317][318]
On 25 February, the number of newly confirmed cases outside mainland China exceeded those from within for the first time; the WHO praised the effectiveness of measures taken in the country.[319] By 6 March the reported number of new cases had dropped to well fewer than 100 nationally per day, down from thousands per day at the height of the crisis. On 13 March, the number of newly imported cases passed the number of domestically transmitted new cases for the first time.[320] On 26 July, China saw its highest number of daily cases since March.[321]India
The first case of COVID-19 in India originated from China and was reported on 30 January 2020. India ordered a nationwide lockdown for the entire population starting 24 March,[322] with a phased unlock beginning 1 June. Six cities account for around half of all reported cases in the country—Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Pune and Kolkata.[323]
As of September 2020, India had the largest number of confirmed cases in Asia;[324] and the second-highest number of confirmed cases in the world,[325] behind the United States,[326] with the number of total confirmed cases breaching the 100,000 mark on 19 May,[327] 1,000,000 on 16 July[328] and 5,000,000 confirmed cases on 16 September 2020.[329] On 30 August, India surpassed the US record for the most cases in a single day, with more than 78,000 cases,[330] and set a new record on 16 September, with almost 98,000 cases reported that day.
On 10 June, India's recoveries exceeded active cases for the first time.[331] As of 30 August, India's case fatality rate is relatively low at 2.3%, against the global 4.7%.[332]
Iran
Iran reported its first confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2 infections on 19 February in Qom, where, according to the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, two people had died that day.[334][335] Early measures announced by the government included the cancellation of concerts and other cultural events,[336] sporting events,[337] Friday prayers,[338] and closures of universities, higher education institutions, and schools.[339] Iran allocated 5 trillion rials (equivalent to US$120,000,000) to combat the virus.[340] President Hassan Rouhani said on 26 February there were no plans to quarantine areas affected by the outbreak, and only individuals would be quarantined.[341] Plans to limit travel between cities were announced in March,[342] although heavy traffic between cities ahead of the Persian New Year Nowruz continued.[343] Shia shrines in Qom remained open to pilgrims until 16 March.[344][345]
Iran became a centre of the spread of the virus after China during February.[346][347] More than ten countries had traced their cases back to Iran by 28 February, indicating the outbreak may have been more severe than the 388 cases reported by the Iranian government by that date.[347][348] The Iranian Parliament was shut down, with 23 of its 290 members reported to have had tested positive for the virus on 3 March.[349] On 15 March, the Iranian government reported a hundred deaths in a single day, the most recorded in the country since the outbreak began.[350] At least twelve sitting or former Iranian politicians and government officials had died from the disease by 17 March.[351] By 23 March, Iran was experiencing fifty new cases every hour and one new death every ten minutes due to coronavirus.[352] According to a WHO official, there may be five times more cases in Iran than what is being reported. It is also suggested that U.S. sanctions on Iran may be affecting the country's financial ability to respond to the viral outbreak.[353] On 20 April, Iran reopened shopping malls and other shopping areas across the country.[354] After reaching a low in new cases in early May, a new peak was reported on 4 June, raising fear of a second wave.[355] On 18 July, President Rouhani estimated that 25 million Iranians had already become infected, which is considerably higher than the official count.[356] Leaked data suggest that 42,000 people had died with COVID-19 symptoms by 20 July, nearly tripling the 14,405 officially reported by that date.[357]
South Korea
COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to South Korea on 20 January 2020 from China. The nation's health agency reported a significant increase in confirmed cases on 20 February,[358] largely attributed to a gathering in Daegu of the Shincheonji Church of Jesus.[358][359] Shincheonji devotees visiting Daegu from Wuhan were suspected to be the origin of the outbreak.[360][361] By 22 February[update], among 9,336 followers of the church, 1,261 or about 13 percent reported symptoms.[362] South Korea declared the highest level of alert on 23 February 2020.[363] On 29 February, more than 3,150 confirmed cases were reported.[364] All South Korean military bases were quarantined after tests showed three soldiers had the virus.[360] Airline schedules were also changed.[365][366]
South Korea introduced what was considered the largest and best-organised programme in the world to screen the population for the virus, isolate any infected people, and trace and quarantine those who contacted them.[291][367] Screening methods included mandatory self-reporting of symptoms by new international arrivals through mobile application,[368] drive-through testing for the virus with the results available the next day,[369] and increasing testing capability to allow up to 20,000 people to be tested every day.[370] Despite some early criticisms of President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis,[371] South Korea's programme is considered a success in controlling the outbreak without quarantining entire cities.[291][372][373]
On 23 March, it was reported that South Korea had the lowest one-day case total in four weeks.[370] On 29 March it was reported that beginning 1 April all new overseas arrivals will be quarantined for two weeks.[374] Per media reports on 1 April, South Korea has received requests for virus testing assistance from 121 different countries.[375] Persistent local groups of infections in the greater Seoul area continued to be found, which led to Korea's CDC director saying in June that the country had entered a second wave of infections,[376] although a WHO official disagreed with that assessment.[377]
Europe
As of 13 March 2020,[update] when the number of new cases became greater than those in China, the World Health Organization (WHO) began to consider Europe the active centre of the pandemic.[378][379] Cases by country across Europe had doubled over periods of typically 3 to 4 days, with some countries (mostly those at earlier stages of detection) showing doubling every 2 days.[380]
As of 17 March,[update] all countries within Europe had a confirmed case of COVID-19, with Montenegro being the last European country to report at least one case.[381] At least one death has been reported in all European countries, apart from the Vatican City.
As of 18 March,[update] more than 250 million people were in lockdown in Europe.[382]
As of 24 May, 68 days since its first recorded case, Montenegro became the first COVID-19-free country in Europe,[383][384] but this situation lasted only 44 days before a newly imported case was identified there.[385]On 21 August, it was reported the COVID-19 cases were climbing among younger individuals across Europe.[386]
France
Although it was originally thought the pandemic reached France on 24 January 2020, when the first COVID-19 case in Europe was confirmed in Bordeaux, it was later discovered that a person near Paris had tested positive for the virus on 27 December 2019 after retesting old samples.[267][268] A key event in the spread of the disease in the country was the annual assembly of the Christian Open Door Church between 17 and 24 February in Mulhouse, which was attended by about 2,500 people, at least half of whom are believed to have contracted the virus.[387][388]
On 13 March, Prime Minister Édouard Philippe ordered the closure of all non-essential public places,[389] and on 16 March, French President Emmanuel Macron announced mandatory home confinement, a policy which was extended at least until 11 May.[390][391][392] As of 14 September[update], France has reported more than 402,000 confirmed cases, 30,000 deaths, and 90,000 recoveries,[393] ranking fourth in number of confirmed cases.[394] In April, there were riots in some Paris suburbs.[395] On 18 May, it was reported that schools in France had to close again after reopening, due to COVID-19 case flare-ups.[396]
Italy
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The outbreak was confirmed to have spread to Italy on 31 January, when two Chinese tourists tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in Rome.[262] Cases began to rise sharply, which prompted the Italian government to suspend all flights to and from China and declare a state of emergency.[398] An unassociated cluster of COVID-19 cases was later detected, starting with 16 confirmed cases in Lombardy on 21 February.[399]
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On 22 February, the Council of Ministers announced a new decree-law to contain the outbreak, including quarantining more than 50,000 people from eleven different municipalities in northern Italy.[400] Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte said, "In the outbreak areas, entry and exit will not be provided. Suspension of work activities and sports events has already been ordered in those areas."[401][402]
On 4 March, the Italian government ordered the full closure of all schools and universities nationwide as Italy reached a hundred deaths. All major sporting events were to be held behind closed doors until April,[403] but on 9 March all sport was suspended completely for at least one month.[404] On 11 March, Prime Minister Conte ordered stoppage of nearly all commercial activity except supermarkets and pharmacies.[405][406]
On 6 March, the Italian College of Anaesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care (SIAARTI) published medical ethics recommendations regarding triage protocols.[407][408][409] On 19 March, Italy overtook China as the country with the most coronavirus-related deaths in the world after reporting 3,405 fatalities from the pandemic.[410][411] On 22 March, it was reported that Russia had sent nine military planes with medical equipment to Italy.[412] As of 14 September[update], there were 287,753 confirmed cases, 35,610 deaths, and 213,634 recoveries in Italy, with the majority of those cases occurring in the Lombardy region.[46] A CNN report indicated that the combination of Italy's large elderly population and inability to test all who have the virus to date may be contributing to the high fatality rate.[413] On 19 April, it was reported that the country had its lowest deaths at 433 in seven days and some businesses are asking for a loosening of restrictions after six weeks of lockdown.[414]
Spain
The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Spain on 31 January 2020, when a German tourist tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in La Gomera, Canary Islands.[415] Post-hoc genetic analysis has shown that at least 15 strains of the virus had been imported, and community transmission began by mid-February.[416] By 13 March, cases had been confirmed in all 50 provinces of the country.
A lockdown was imposed on 14 March 2020.[417] On 29 March, it was announced that, beginning the following day, all non-essential workers were ordered to remain at home for the next 14 days.[418] By late March, the Community of Madrid has recorded the most cases and deaths in the country. Medical professionals and those who live in retirement homes have experienced especially high infection rates.[419] On 25 March, the official death toll in Spain surpassed that of mainland China.[420] On 2 April, 950 people died of the virus in a 24-hour period—at the time, the most by any country in a single day.[421] On 17 May, the daily death toll announced by the Spanish government fell below 100 for the first time,[422] and 1 June was the first day without deaths by coronavirus.[423] The state of alarm ended on 21 June.[424] However, the number of cases increased again in July in a number of cities including Barcelona, Zaragoza and Madrid, which led to reimposition of some restrictions but no national lockdown.[425][426][427][428]
Studies have suggested that the number of infections and deaths may have been underestimated due to lack of testing and reporting, and many people with only mild or no symptoms were not tested.[429][430] Reports in May suggested that, based on a sample of more than 63,000 people, the number of infections may be ten times higher than the number of confirmed cases by that date, and Madrid and several provinces of Castilla–La Mancha and Castilla y León were the most affected areas with a percentage of infection greater than 10%.[431][432] There may also be as many as 15,815 more deaths according to the Spanish Ministry of Health monitoring system on daily excess mortality (Sistema de Monitorización de la Mortalidad Diaria - MoMo).[433] On 6 July 2020, the results of a Spanish Government nationwide seroprevalence study showed that about two million people, or 5.2% of the population, could have been infected during the pandemic.[434][435] Spain is the second country in Europe (behind Russia) to record half a million cases, with 682,267 infections and 30,905 deaths reported as of 23 September, a third of which occurred in Madrid.[436]Sweden
Sweden differed from most other European countries in that it mostly remained open.[437] Per the Swedish Constitution, the Public Health Agency of Sweden has autonomy which prevents political interference and the agency's policy favoured forgoing a lockdown. The Swedish strategy focused on measures that could be put in place over a longer period of time, based on the assumption that the virus would start spreading again after a shorter lockdown.[438][439] The New York Times said that, as of May 2020, the outbreak had been far deadlier there but the economic impact had been reduced as Swedes have continued to go to work, restaurants, and shopping.[437][440] On 19 May, it was reported that the country had in the week of 12–19 May the highest per capita deaths in Europe, 6.25 deaths per million per day.[441] In the end of June, Sweden no longer had excess mortality.[442]
United Kingdom
The nature of devolution in the United Kingdom meant that each of the four countries of the UK had its own response to COVID-19 with different rules and restrictions at different times and the UK government, on behalf of England, moving more quickly to lift restrictions.[443] The UK government started to implement forms of social distancing and mass quarantine measures on 18 March 2020[444][445] and was criticised[by whom?] for a perceived lack of intensity in its response to concerns faced by the public.[446][447] On 16 March, Prime Minister Boris Johnson advised against non-essential travel and social contact, suggesting people work from home and avoid venues such as pubs, restaurants, and theatres.[448][449] On 20 March, the government announced that all leisure establishments such as pubs and gyms were to close as soon as possible,[450] and promised to pay up to 80 percent of workers' wages to a limit of £2,500 per month to prevent unemployment.[451]
On 23 March, the prime minister announced tougher social distancing measures, banning gatherings of more than two people and restricting travel and outdoor activity to that deemed strictly necessary. Unlike previous measures, these restrictions were enforceable by police through fines and dispersal of gatherings. Most businesses were ordered to close, with exceptions for those deemed "essential", including supermarkets, pharmacies, banks, hardware shops, petrol stations, and garages.[452]
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On 24 April it was reported that one of the more promising vaccine trials had begun in England; the government pledged more than £50 million towards research.[453] To ensure UK health services had sufficient capacity to treat people with COVID-19, a number of temporary critical care hospitals were built.[454] The first to be operational was the 4000-bed capacity NHS Nightingale Hospital London, constructed within the ExCeL convention centre over nine days.[455] On 4 May, it was announced that the Nightingale Hospital in London would be placed on standby and remaining patients transferred to other facilities;[456] Nightingale had "treated 51 patients" in the first three weeks it was open.[457]
On 16 April it was reported that the UK would have first access to the Oxford vaccine, due to a prior contract; should the trial be successful, some 30 million doses in the UK would be available.[458]
North America
North America reported its first case in early 2020, specifically in the United States, followed by Canada. Other countries followed, with a bomb of new cases on March.
United States
The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States is part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). As of October 2020, there were over 7,200,000 cases of COVID-19 and 207,000 COVID-19-related deaths in the U.S.[459]
On December 31, 2019, China announced the discovery of a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan. The first American case was reported on January 20, and the U.S. outbreak was officially declared a public health emergency on January 31. Restrictions were placed on flights arriving from China,[460][461] but the initial U.S. response to the pandemic was otherwise slow, in terms of preparing the healthcare system, stopping other travel, and testing for the virus.[462][463][464][f] Meanwhile, President Donald Trump downplayed the threat posed by the virus and claimed the outbreak was under control.[466]
The first known American deaths were reported in February.[467] By the end of March, cases had been confirmed in all fifty U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and all inhabited U.S. territories except American Samoa.[468][469]
On March 13, President Trump declared a national emergency.[470] The Trump administration largely waited until mid-March to start purchasing large quantities of medical equipment.[471] In late March, the administration started to use the Defense Production Act to direct industries to produce medical equipment.[472] By April 17, the federal government approved disaster declarations for all states and territories. A second rise in infections began in June 2020, following relaxed restrictions in several states.[473]
State and local responses to the outbreak have included prohibitions and cancellation of large-scale gatherings (including festivals and sporting events), stay-at-home orders, and the closure of schools.[474] Disproportionate numbers of cases have been observed among Black and Latino populations,[475][476][477] and there were reported incidents of xenophobia and racism against Asian Americans.[478] Clusters of infections and deaths have occurred in many areas.[g]
As of September 29, the US death rate had reached 625 per million people, the eleventh-highest rate globally, and ninth-highest if European microstates are excluded.[481][482]South America
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On April 17, the highest number of cases and deaths was registered in Brazil,[486] followed by Peru and Colombia in the number of confirmed cases.[487]
On 13 May, it was reported that Latin America and the Caribbean had reported over 400,000 cases of infection with 23,091 deaths. On 22 May, citing especially the rapid increase of infections in Brazil, the World Health Organisation declared that South America is presently the epicentre of the coronavirus pandemic.[488][489]
As of 20 September, South America has about 7.5 million confirmed cases and 238,000 deaths, surpassing the United States with about 6.9 million cases and 200,000 deaths. Due to a dearth of testing and medical facilities, it is believed that the outbreak in the former is far larger than the official numbers show.[490]Brazil
On 20 May it was reported that Brazil had a record 1,179 deaths in a single day, for a total of almost 18,000 fatalities. With a total number of almost 272,000 cases, Brazil became the country with the third-highest number of cases, following Russia and the United States.[491] On 25 May, Brazil exceeded the number of reported cases in Russia when they reported that 11,687 new cases had been confirmed over the previous 24 hours, bringing the total number to over 374,800, with more than 23,400 deaths. President Jair Bolsonaro has created a great deal of controversy referring to the virus as a "little flu" and frequently speaking out against preventive measures such as lockdowns and quarantines. His attitude towards the outbreak has so closely matched that of U.S. President Donald Trump he has been called the "Trump of the Tropics".[492] Bolsonaro later tested positive for the virus.[493]
In June 2020, the government of Brazil attempted to conceal the actual figures of the COVID-19 active cases and deaths, as it stopped publishing the total number of infections and deaths. On 5 June, Brazil's health ministry took down the official website reflecting the total numbers of infections and deaths. The website was live on 6 June, with only the number of infections of the previous 24 hours. The last official numbers reported about 615,000 infections and over 34,000 deaths.[494] On 15 June, it was reported that the worldwide cases had jumped from seven to eight million in one week, citing Latin America, specifically Brazil as one of the countries where cases are surging, in this case, towards 1 million cases.[495]
Africa
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According to Michael Yao, WHO's head of emergency operations in Africa, early detection is vital because the continent's health systems "are already overwhelmed by many ongoing disease outbreaks".[496][497] Advisers say that a strategy based on testing could allow African countries to minimise lockdowns that inflict enormous hardship on those who depend on income earned day by day to be able to feed themselves and their families. Even in the best scenario, the United Nations says 74 million test kits and 30,000 ventilators will be needed by the continent's 1.3 billion people in 2020.[498] The number of infections exceeded a million by 6 August, with five countries making up over 75% of the total confirmed cases: South Africa, Algeria, Egypt, Ghana, and Nigeria.[499] It is, however, believed that there is widespread under-reporting in other African countries with poorer health care systems,[500] and some countries such as Tanzania failed to provide useful statistics. The mortality rates of COVID-19 cases in African countries are relatively low compared to Europe due to the younger age of their populations.[499]
Cases have been confirmed in all African countries, with Lesotho the last country to report its first coronavirus case on 13 May 2020.[501] There have been no reported cases in the Free Zone, administered by the disputed state of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, and the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha.[502]
Oceania
On 19 May 2020, Australia filed a motion with the UN for an inquiry into the origins of the virus, and the response of the UN and governments. More than 100 countries supported this motion, and it was passed unanimously.[505][506]
International responses
Travel restrictions
As a result of the pandemic, many countries and regions imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions, either for citizens, recent travellers to affected areas,[507] or for all travellers.[508] Together with a decreased willingness to travel, this had a negative economic and social impact on the travel sector. Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19.[509] A study in Science found that travel restrictions had only modestly affected the initial spread of COVID-19, unless combined with infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions.[510] Researchers concluded that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late".[511]
The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen free travel zone and introducing border controls with Italy,[512][513] a decision which has been criticised by some European politicians.[514][515]
Evacuation of foreign citizens
Owing to the effective quarantine of public transport in Wuhan and Hubei, several countries evacuated their citizens and diplomatic staff from the area, primarily through chartered flights of the home nation, with Chinese authorities providing clearance. Canada, the United States, Japan, India,[516] Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany, and Thailand were among the first to plan the evacuation of their citizens.[517] Brazil and New Zealand also evacuated their own nationals and some other people.[518][519] On 14 March, South Africa repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative for the virus from Wuhan, while four who showed symptoms were left behind to mitigate risk.[520] Pakistan said it would not evacuate citizens from China.[521]
On 15 February, the U.S. announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the cruise ship Diamond Princess,[522] and on 21 February, Canada evacuated 129 Canadian passengers from the ship.[523] In early March, the Indian government began evacuating its citizens from Iran.[524][525] On 20 March, the United States began to partially withdraw its troops from Iraq due to the pandemic.[526]
International aid
United Nations response measures
The United Nations response to the coronavirus pandemic can be divided into:
- Formal resolutions at the General Assembly and at the Security Council (UNSC), and
- Operations via its specialized agencies. Those are:
- the World Health Organization since the initial stages,
and, since the humanitarian impact became clearer, more humanitarian-oriented agencies like:
and, since the socioeconomic implications worsened, economic organizations like:
In June 2020, the Secretary-General launched its 'UN Comprehensive Response to COVID-19'.[533] The UNSC has been criticized for a slow coordinated response, especially regarding the UN's global ceasefire, which aims to open up humanitarian access to the world's most vulnerable in conflict zones.[534]
WHO response measures
Protests against governmental corona measures
In several countries, protests have risen against governmental restrictive responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Similar or identical motives for protests were noted in different countries:
- Economic shutdowns/lockdowns lead to unemployment, joblessness, worries over livelihoods, severe economic damage (Argentina, Bulgaria, Chile, India, Lebanon, Malawi, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Spain, USA) or financial damage (New Zealand).
- Lockdowns or other measures violate constitutional rights including the freedom of political protest demonstrations or religious gatherings (Germany, Italy, Thailand, USA) or cause segregation, territorial discrimination (Mexico, Spain) or the concentration of all power in the hands of the President (Serbia) or make society evolve into a police state or surveillance state or slavery (Germany, New Zealand, Russia, UK).
- Defiance of social-distancing rules because: "my body, my choice" (Australia, United Kingdom) or protests against harsh isolation imposed on prisoners (Canada).
- Lockdowns cause mental strains or social or emotional damage, for example for poorer families living in narrow housings (France, New Zealand, USA).
- Lockdowns cause hunger, lack of food, or lack of social services, especially for poor people (Chile, Malawi, Philippines).
- Measures lead to overpriced food (China) or forced quarantines with forced payment to the government for the costs of it (Kenya).
Impact
Economics
The outbreak is a major destabilising threat to the global economy. Agathe Demarais of the Economist Intelligence Unit has forecast that markets will remain volatile until a clearer image emerges on potential outcomes. One estimate from an expert at Washington University in St. Louis gave a $300+ billion impact on the world's supply chain that could last up to two years.[538] Global stock markets fell on 24 February due to a significant rise in the number of COVID-19 cases outside China.[539][540] On 27 February, due to mounting worries about the coronavirus outbreak, U.S. stock indexes posted their sharpest falls since 2008, with the Dow falling 1,191 points (the largest one-day drop since the financial crisis of 2007–08)[541] and all three major indexes ending the week down more than 10 percent.[542] On 28 February, Scope Ratings GmbH affirmed China's sovereign credit rating but maintained a Negative Outlook.[543] Stocks plunged again due to coronavirus fears, the largest fall being on 16 March.[544]
Lloyd's of London has estimated that the global insurance industry will absorb losses of US$204 billion, exceeding the losses from the 2017 Atlantic Hurricane season and 9/11, suggesting the COVID-19 pandemic will likely go down in history as the costliest disaster ever in human history.[545]
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Tourism is one of the worst affected sectors due to travel bans, closing of public places including travel attractions, and advice of governments against travel. Numerous airlines have cancelled flights due to lower demand, and British regional airline Flybe collapsed.[546] The cruise line industry was hard hit,[547] and several train stations and ferry ports have also been closed.[548] International mail between some countries stopped or was delayed due to reduced transportation between them or suspension of domestic service.[549]
The retail sector has been impacted globally, with reductions in store hours or temporary closures.[550] Visits to retailers in Europe and Latin America declined by 40 percent. North America and Middle East retailers saw a 50–60 percent drop.[551] This also resulted in a 33–43 percent drop in foot traffic to shopping centres in March compared to February. Shopping mall operators around the world imposed additional measures, such as increased sanitation, installation of thermal scanners to check the temperature of shoppers, and cancellation of events.[552]
Hundreds of millions of jobs could be lost globally.[553][554] More than 40 million Americans lost their jobs and filed unemployment insurance claims.[555] The economic impact and mass unemployment caused by the pandemic has raised fears of a mass eviction crisis,[556][557] with an analysis by the Aspen Institute indicating between 30 and 40 million Americans are at risk for eviction by the end of 2020.[558][559] According to a report by the Yelp, about 60% of U.S. businesses that have closed since the start of the pandemic will stay shut permanently.[560]
According to a United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America estimate, the pandemic-induced recession could leave 14–22 million more people in extreme poverty in Latin America than would have been in that situation without the pandemic.[561] According to the World Bank, up to 100 million more people globally could fall into extreme poverty due to the shutdowns.[16][562][563] The International Labour Organization (ILO) informed that the income generated in first nine months of 2020 from work across the world dropped by 10.7 per cent, or $3.5 trillion, amidst the coronavirus outbreak.[564]
Supply shortages
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The outbreak has been blamed for several instances of supply shortages, stemming from globally increased usage of equipment to fight outbreaks, panic buying (which in several places led to shelves being cleared of grocery essentials such as food, toilet paper, and bottled water), and disruption to the factory and logistic operations.[565] The spread of panic buying has been found to stem from perceived threat, perceived scarcity, fear of the unknown, coping behaviour and social psychological factors (e.g. social influence and trust).[566] The technology industry, in particular, has warned of delays to shipments of electronic goods.[567] According to the WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom, demand for personal protection equipment has risen a hundredfold, leading to prices up to twenty times the normal price and also delays in the supply of medical items of four to six months.[568][569] It has also caused a shortage of personal protective equipment worldwide, with the WHO warning that this will endanger health workers.[570]
The impact of the coronavirus outbreak was worldwide. The virus created a shortage of precursors (raw material) used in the manufacturing of fentanyl and methamphetamine. The Yuancheng Group, headquartered in Wuhan, is one of the leading suppliers.[571] Price increases and shortages in these illegal drugs have been noticed on the street of the UK.[572] U.S. law enforcement also told the New York Post Mexican drug cartels were having difficulty in obtaining precursors.[573]
The pandemic has disrupted global food supplies and threatens to trigger a new food crisis.[574][575] David Beasley, head of the World Food Programme (WFP), said "we could be facing multiple famines of biblical proportions within a short few months."[576] Senior officials at the United Nations estimated in April 2020 that an additional 130 million people could starve, for a total of 265 million by the end of 2020.[17][576][577]
Oil and other energy markets
In early February 2020, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) "scrambled" after a steep decline in oil prices due to lower demand from China.[578] On Monday, 20 April, the price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) went negative and fell to a record low (minus $37.63 a barrel) due to traders' offloading holdings so as not to take delivery and incur storage costs.[579] June prices were down but in the positive range, with a barrel of West Texas trading above $20.[579]
Culture
The performing arts and cultural heritage sectors have been profoundly affected by the pandemic, impacting organisations' operations as well as individuals—both employed and independent—globally. Arts and culture sector organisations attempted to uphold their (often publicly funded) mission to provide access to cultural heritage to the community, maintain the safety of their employees and the public, and support artists where possible. By March 2020, across the world and to varying degrees, museums, libraries, performance venues, and other cultural institutions had been indefinitely closed with their exhibitions, events and performances cancelled or postponed.[580] In response there were intensive efforts to provide alternative services through digital platforms.[581][582][583]
Holy Week observances in Rome, which occur during the last week of the Christian penitential season of Lent, were cancelled.[582] Many dioceses have recommended older Christians stay home rather than attend Mass on Sundays; services have been made available via radio, online live streaming and television, though some congregations have made provisions for drive-in worship.[584][585][582] With the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rome closing its churches and chapels and St. Peter's Square emptied of Christian pilgrims,[582] other religious bodies also cancelled in-person services and limited public gatherings in churches, mosques, synagogues, temples and gurdwaras.[582] Iran's Health Ministry announced the cancellation of Friday prayers in areas affected by the outbreak and shrines were later closed,[338][345] while Saudi Arabia banned the entry of foreign pilgrims as well as its residents to holy sites in Mecca and Medina.[586][587] The 2020 Hajj was limited to around 1,000 selected pilgrims, in contrast to the usual number of over 2 million.[588]
The pandemic has caused the most significant disruption to the worldwide sporting calendar since the Second World War. Most major sporting events have been cancelled or postponed, including the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League,[589] 2019–20 Premier League,[590] UEFA Euro 2020, 2019–20 NBA season,[591] and 2019–20 NHL season.[592] The outbreak disrupted plans for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, which were originally scheduled to start at 24 July 2020, and were postponed by the International Olympic Committee to 23 July 2021.[593][594][595]
The entertainment industry has also been affected, with many music groups suspending or cancelling concert tours.[596][597] The Eurovision Song Contest, which was due to be held in Rotterdam, the Netherlands in May, was cancelled; however, the Netherlands was retained as host for 2021.[598][599] Many large theatres such as those on Broadway also suspended all performances.[600] Some artists have explored ways to continue to produce and share work over the internet as an alternative to traditional live performance, such as live streaming concerts[601] or creating web-based "festivals" for artists to perform, distribute, and publicise their work.[602] Online, numerous COVID-19-themed Internet memes have spread as many turn to humour and distraction amid the uncertainty.[603]
Politics
The pandemic has affected the political systems of multiple countries, causing suspensions of legislative activities,[604] isolations or deaths of multiple politicians,[605] and rescheduling of elections due to fears of spreading the virus.[606] Starting in late May, large-scale protests against police brutality in at least 200 U.S. cities and later worldwide in response to the killing of George Floyd raised concerns of a resurgence of the virus.[607]
Although they have broad support among epidemiologists, social distancing measures have been politically controversial in many countries. Intellectual opposition to social distancing has come primarily from writers of other fields, although there are a few heterodox epidemiologists.[608]
On 23 March 2020, United Nations Secretary-General António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres issued an appeal for a global ceasefire in response to the pandemic;[609][610] 172 UN Member States and Observers signed a non-binding statement in support of the appeal in June,[611] and the UN Security Council passed a resolution supporting it in July.[612][613]
China
The Chinese government has been criticised by the United States government,[614] UK Minister for the Cabinet Office Michael Gove,[615] and others[616] for its handling of the pandemic. A number of provincial-level administrators of the Communist Party of China were dismissed over their handling of the quarantine measures in China, a sign of discontent with their response to the outbreak. Some commentators believed this move was intended to protect Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping from the controversy.[617] The U.S. intelligence community says China intentionally under-reported its number of coronavirus cases.[618] The Chinese government maintains it has acted swiftly and transparently.[619][620]
Italy
In early March, the Italian government criticised the European Union's lack of solidarity with coronavirus-affected Italy[621][622]—Maurizio Massari, Italy's ambassador to the EU, said "only China responded bilaterally", not the EU.[623] On 22 March, after a phone call with Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte, Russian president Vladimir Putin had the Russian army send military medics, disinfection vehicles, and other medical equipment to Italy.[624] President of Lombardy Attilio Fontana and Italian Foreign Minister Luigi Di Maio expressed their gratitude for the aid.[625] Russia also sent a cargo plane with medical aid to the United States.[626] Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov said "when offering assistance to U.S. colleagues, [Putin] assumes that when U.S. manufacturers of medical equipment and materials gain momentum, they will also be able to reciprocate if necessary."[627] In early April, Norway and EU states like Romania and Austria started to offer help by sending medical personnel and disinfectant,[628] and Ursula von der Leyen offered an official apology to the country.[629]
United States
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The outbreak prompted calls for the United States to adopt social policies common in other wealthy countries, including universal health care, universal child care, paid sick leave, and higher levels of funding for public health.[631][632][633] Political analysts anticipated it may negatively affect Donald Trump's chances of re-election.[634][635] Beginning in mid-April 2020, there were protests in several U.S. states against government-imposed business closures and restricted personal movement and association.[636] Simultaneously, protests ensued by essential workers in the form of a general strike.[637]
Other countries
The planned NATO "Defender 2020" military exercise in Germany, Poland, and the Baltic states, the largest NATO war exercise since the end of the Cold War, will be held on a reduced scale.[638][639] The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament's general secretary Kate Hudson criticised the exercise, saying "it jeopardises the lives not only of the troops from the U.S. and the many European countries participating but the inhabitants of the countries in which they are operating."[640]
The Iranian government has been heavily affected by the virus, with about two dozen parliament members and fifteen current or former political figures infected.[348][641] Iran's President Hassan Rouhani wrote a public letter to world leaders asking for help on 14 March 2020, saying they were struggling to fight the outbreak due to a lack of access to international markets from the United States sanctions against Iran.[642] Saudi Arabia, which launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015, declared a ceasefire.[643]
Diplomatic relations between Japan and South Korea worsened due to the pandemic.[644] South Korea criticised Japan's "ambiguous and passive quarantine efforts" after Japan announced anyone coming from South Korea would be placed in quarantine for two weeks at government-designated sites.[645] South Korean society was initially polarised on President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis; many Koreans signed petitions either calling for Moon's impeachment or praising his response.[371]
Some countries have passed emergency legislation in response to the pandemic. Some commentators have expressed concern that it could allow governments to strengthen their grip on power.[646][647] In the Philippines, lawmakers granted president Rodrigo Duterte temporary emergency powers during the pandemic.[648] In Hungary, the parliament voted to allow the prime minister, Viktor Orbán, to rule by decree indefinitely, suspend parliament as well as elections, and punish those deemed to have spread false information about the virus and the government's handling of the crisis.[649] In some countries, including Egypt,[650] Turkey,[651] and Thailand,[648] opposition activists and government critics have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic.[652]
Famine
The pandemic, alongside lockdowns and travel restrictions, has prevented movement of aid and greatly impacted food production. As a result, several famines are forecast, which the United Nations called a crisis "of biblical proportions,"[653] or "hunger pandemic."[654] It is estimated that without intervention 30 million people may die of hunger, with Oxfam reporting that "12,000 people per day could die from COVID-19 linked hunger" by the end of 2020.[655][653][656] This pandemic, in conjunction with the 2019-20 locust infestations and several ongoing armed conflicts, is predicted to form the worst series of famines since the Great Chinese Famine, affecting between 10 and 20 percent of the global population in some way.[657] 55 countries are reported to be at risk, with three dozen succumbing to crisis-level famines or above in the worst-case scenario.[658] 265 million people are forecast to be in famine conditions, an increase of 125 million due to the coronavirus pandemic.[655]
Education
The pandemic has affected educational systems worldwide, leading to the near-total closures of schools, universities and colleges.[659]
Most governments around the world have temporarily closed educational institutions in an attempt to reduce the spread of COVID-19.[660] As of 4 September 2020, approximately 1.277 billion learners are currently affected due to school closures in response to the pandemic. According to UNICEF monitoring, 46 countries are currently implementing nationwide closures and 27 are implementing local closures, impacting about 72.9 percent of the world's student population. 72 countries' schools are currently open.[661]
On 23 March 2020, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) released a statement announcing the cancellation of Cambridge IGCSE, Cambridge O Level, Cambridge International AS & A Level, Cambridge AICE Diploma, and Cambridge Pre-U examinations for the May/June 2020 series across all countries.[662] International Baccalaureate exams have also been cancelled.[663] In addition, Advanced Placement Exams, SAT administrations, and ACT administrations have been moved online and cancelled.
School closures impact not only students, teachers, and families.[664] but have far-reaching economic and societal consequences.[665][666] School closures in response to the pandemic have shed light on various social and economic issues, including student debt,[667] digital learning,[668][669] food insecurity,[670] and homelessness,[671][672] as well as access to childcare,[673] health care,[674] housing,[675] internet,[676] and disability services.[677] The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children and their families, causing interrupted learning, compromised nutrition, childcare problems, and consequent economic cost to families who could not work.[678][679]
In response to school closures, UNESCO recommended the use of distance learning programmes and open educational applications and platforms that schools and teachers can use to reach learners remotely and limit the disruption of education.[680]Other health issues
The pandemic has had many impacts on global health beyond those caused by the COVID-19 disease itself. It has led to a reduction in hospital visits for other reasons. There have been 38 per cent fewer hospital visits for heart attack symptoms in the United States and 40 per cent fewer in Spain.[681] The head of cardiology at the University of Arizona said, "My worry is some of these people are dying at home because they're too scared to go to the hospital."[682] There is also concern that people with strokes and appendicitis are not seeking timely treatment.[682] Shortages of medical supplies have impacted people with various conditions.[683]
In several countries there has been a marked reduction of spread of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, attributable to COVID-19 quarantines, social distancing measures, and recommendations to not engage in casual sex.[684][685] Similarly, in some places, rates of transmission of influenza and other respiratory viruses significantly decreased during the pandemic.[686][687][688]
The pandemic has also negatively impacted mental health globally, including increased loneliness resulting from social distancing.[689]Environment and climate
The worldwide disruption caused by the pandemic has resulted in numerous impacts on the environment and the climate. The global reduction in modern human activity such as the considerable decline in planned travel[691] was coined anthropause[692] and has caused many regions to experience a large drop in air pollution.[693] In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 25 per cent reduction in carbon emissions[694] and 50 per cent reduction in nitrogen oxides emissions,[695] which one Earth systems scientist estimated may have saved at least 77,000 lives over two months.[696][697] Other positive impacts on the environment include governance-system-controlled investments towards a sustainable energy transition and other goals related to environmental protection such as the European Union's seven-year €1 trillion budget proposal and €750 billion recovery plan "Next Generation EU" which seeks to reserve 25% of EU spending for climate-friendly expenditure.[698][699][700]
However, the outbreak has also provided cover for illegal activities such as deforestation of the Amazon rainforest[701][702] and poaching in Africa,[703][704] hindered environmental diplomacy efforts,[705] and created economic fallout that some predict will slow investment in green energy technologies.[706]
Xenophobia and racism
Since the start of the outbreak, heightened prejudice, xenophobia, and racism have been documented around the world toward people of Chinese and East Asian descent.[707][708][709] Reports from February (when most cases were confined to China) documented racist sentiments expressed in groups worldwide about Chinese people deserving the virus.[710][711][712] Chinese people and other Asians in the United Kingdom and United States have reported increasing levels of racist abuse and assaults.[713][714][715] U.S. president Donald Trump has been criticised for referring to the coronavirus as the "Chinese Virus" and "Kung Flu", which has been widely condemned as racist and xenophobic.[716][717][718] On 14 March, an Asian family, including a two-year-old girl, was attacked at knifepoint in Texas in what the FBI has called a COVID-19 related hate crime.[719]
Following the progression of the outbreak to new hotspot countries, people from Italy (the first country in Europe to experience a serious outbreak of COVID-19) were also subjected to suspicion and xenophobia,[720][721] as were people from hotspots in other countries. Discrimination against Muslims in India escalated after public health authorities identified an Islamic missionary (Tablighi Jamaat) group's gathering in New Delhi in early March 2020 as a source of spread.[722] Paris has seen riots break out over police treatment of ethnic minorities during the coronavirus lockdown.[723] Racism and xenophobia towards South Asians and Southeast Asians increased in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.[724][725][726] South Korea's LGBTQ community was blamed by some for the spread of COVID-19 in Seoul.[727][728] In China, some people of African descent were evicted from their homes by police and told to leave China within 24 hours, due to disinformation that they and other foreigners were spreading the virus.[729] This racism and xenophobia was criticised by foreign governments and diplomatic corps and the Chinese ambassador to Zimbabwe.[730]
Information dissemination
Ongoing COVID-19 research is indexed and searchable in the NIH COVID-19 Portfolio.[731] Some newspaper agencies removed their online paywalls for some or all of their coronavirus-related articles and posts,[732] while scientific publishers made scientific papers related to the outbreak available with open access.[733] Some scientists chose to share their results quickly on preprint servers such as bioRxiv.[734]
Misinformation
The pandemic has resulted in misinformation and conspiracy theories about the scale of the pandemic and the origin, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease.[735][736][737] False information, including intentional disinformation, has been spread through social media,[736][738] text messaging,[739] and mass media,[740] including the tabloid media,[741] conservative media,[742][743] and state media of countries such as China,[744][745] Russia,[746][747] Iran,[748] and Turkmenistan.[736][749] It has also been reportedly spread by covert operations backed by states such as Saudi Arabia, Russia and China to generate panic and sow distrust in other countries.[750][751][752][753] In some countries, such as India,[754] Bangladesh,[755] and Ethiopia,[756] journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the pandemic.[757]
Misinformation has been propagated by celebrities, politicians[758][759] (including heads of state in countries such as the United States,[760][761] Iran,[762] and Brazil),[763][764] and other prominent public figures.[765] Commercial scams have claimed to offer at-home tests, supposed preventives, and "miracle" cures.[766][767] Several religious groups have claimed their faith will protect them from the virus.[768][769][770] Some people have claimed the virus is a bioweapon accidentally or purposefully leaked from a laboratory,[771][772] a population control scheme,[773] the result of a spy operation,[737][738][774] or the side effect of 5G upgrades to cellular networks.[775]
The World Health Organization has declared an "infodemic" of incorrect information about the virus, which poses risks to global health.[736]See also
.svg){kind=small}
- Emerging infectious disease
- Globalisation and disease
- List of epidemics and pandemics
- Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic
Notes
- ^ In summary, this article is about the coronavirus pandemic, which is caused by the disease COVID‑19, which is caused by the virus SARS‑CoV‑2.[1]
- ^ Known as "close contact" which is variously defined, including within ~1.8 metres (six feet) by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and being face to face for at least 15 minutes, or sharing an enclosed space for a prolonged period such as 2 hours, by the Australian Health Department.[8][9]
- ^ Some refer to this as 'infection fatality rate’; however the term ‘ratio’ is more accurate as this is not per unit time.[91]
- ^ This CDC best estimate (current as of 10 September) was derived from a paper in PLOS Medicine that estimated a range of IFR across several areas in Europe, from 0.5% (95% CrI 0.4%–0.6%) in Switzerland to 1.4% (95% CrI 1.1%–1.6%) in Lombardy, Italy (based on data through mid-to-late April).[94] Regarding the differences across the regions, the European researchers noted "the importance of local factors … including demographic characteristics" and "the lower degree of preparedness and health service capacity in northern Italy, which in Europe was affected first by the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic."[94]
- ^ One set of national statistics for England (ONS) shows a decrease in IFR from 2.63% to 0.49%; another (MRC) from 0.69% to 0.30%, both over eight weeks ending 4 August.
- ^ A lack of mass testing obscured the extent of the outbreak.[465]
- ^ Examples of areas in which clusters have occurred include urban areas, nursing homes, long-term care facilities, group homes for the intellectually disabled,[479] detention centers (including prisons), meatpacking plants, churches, and navy ships.[480]
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