Cofán language
Cofán | |
---|---|
A'ingae | |
Native to | Ecuador, Colombia |
Region | Oriente or Ecuadorian Amazon |
Ethnicity | Cofán people |
Native speakers | 2,400 (2001–2008)[1] |
Official status | |
Official language in | Ecuador: indigenous languages official in own territories |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | con |
Glottolog | cofa1242 |
ELP | Cofán |
The Cofán language (also Kofan or Kofane; autonym: A'ingae) is the language of the Cofán people, an indigenous group native to the province of Sucumbíos in northeast Ecuador and southern Colombia (Nariño Department; Orito, San Miguel and Valle del Guamuez in Putumayo Department).[2]
While Cofán is an endangered language, it is classified as a developing language with 1400 to 2400 speakers.[3] There are two types of Cofán: Aguarico (spoken in Ecuador) and San Miguel (primarily spoken in Colombia).[3] Approximately 60% of Cofán speakers in Ecuador are literate in their own language.[4]
Use of Cofán in Ecuador is connected to the language in land property rights documents and in the bilingual access to the language in schools. In Colombia, Cofán is more endangered because of war, displacement, and intermarriage.[3]
History and Current Status[edit]
A’ingae is a language isolate of Amazonia spoken by the Cofán people in the province of Sucumbios in Northeastern Ecuador and the provinces of Putumayo and Nariño in Southern Columbia. The language has approximately 1500 speakers and is relatively vital in Ecuador and severely endangered in Colombia.[5] However, language attitudes about A’ingae are positive and it is considered foundational to Cofán identity and community (Cepek 2012).
The A’i are traditionally hunter-gatherers who historically spanned over a large territory (AnderBois et al. 2019). In Ecuador, the Cofán have resisted conquest by the Inca and colonization by the Spanish, as well as anti-indigenous policies by the Ecuadorian government. The pre-Colombian Cofán population is estimated at 60,000 to 70,000. Though the origin of the Cofán is the Eastern Andean Cordilleras, Inca encroachment pushed the Cofán to the eastern lowlands, which they still inhabit today. The Cofán have undergone de facto segregation codified by the Ecuadorian government, a measles outbreak in 1923 that reduced the population to a few hundred, and illegal oil extraction that threatened the environment in Cofán territory and the Cofán way of life. The Cofán have played a major role in the Indigenous movement in Ecuador, and in 2018 they won a judicial case recognizing their right to decide over environmental activities in their territory and prohibiting the continued operation of mining activities.[5]
The Cofán’s religious tradition is shamanistic, and a key cultural value of the Cofán is harmonious conviviality. In addition, participation in cultural practices such as drinking yaje and traditional skills like hunting and housebuilding, rather than descent or ethnicity, plays a large role in determining one’s status as an a’i (Cepek 2012). The Cofán credit their strong linguistic identity for their ability to withstand colonial oppression and protect their traditional way of life.[5]
A’ingae is a language isolate. The language has considerable Amazonian borrowings from tukanoan and cariban languages, as well as many Quechuan borrowings. While there have been previous claims of genetic ties or language contact of A’ingae to Barbacoan, Chicham, and Chibchan, it has been determined that there are no substantial borrowings.[6] No complete grammar of the language has been produced.[7]
The name of the language, A’ingae, which consists of the stem a’i (‘person, Cofán person, civilized person’) and the manner clitic =ngae, means ‘in the manner of the people’. Though the speakers use the word A’ingae, the language is also known by the Spanish denomination Cofán/Kofán.
Writing System (Orthography)[edit]
A’ingae has two principal orthographies, both using the Latin alphabet. The first was developed by missionaries Marlytte and Roberta Borman, and first employed in M. Borman (1962).[8] This orthography was influenced by Spanish and thus contained some needless complexity such as representing the phoneme /k/ with ⟨qu⟩ before front vowels, and with ⟨c⟩ elsewhere. Borman also conveyed aspirated obstruents via reduplication instead of via <h> insertion like in the modern orthography. More recently, the Cofán community has created and widely adopted a new writing system which aimed to solve some of the opacities of Borman’s script. A comparison between the two orthographies can be observed in the tables below:
IPA | Borman | Community | IPA | Borman | Community |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/p/ | p | /ndz/ | ndz, dz** | ||
/ph/ | pp | ph | /ndʒ/ | ndy, dy | |
/t/ | t | /f/ | f | ||
/th/ | tt | th | /s/ | s | |
/k/ | c, qu | k | /ʃ/ | sh | |
/kh/ | cc, qqu | kh | /h/ | j | |
/ʔ/ | ‘ | /m/ | m | ||
/ts/ | ts | /n/ | n | ||
/tsh/ | tss | tsh | /ɲ/ | ñ | |
/tʃ/ | ch | /ɾ/ | r | ||
/tʃh/ | cch | chh | /ʋ/ | v | |
/mb/ | mb, b* | /j/ | y | ||
/nd/ | nd, d | /ɰ/ | g | ||
/ŋɡ/ | ng, g |
* The prenasalized voiced stops and affricates are written without a homorganic nasal at the beginning of words. This is because word-initially, voiced stops are realized with less nasality than they are word-medially, hence the orthographic representation. However Repetti-Ludlow et al. (2020)[6] found that there is still some nasalisation present.
** Both Borman and Community orthographies show inconsistency between the use of <dz> and <z>
IPA | Borman | Community | IPA | Borman | Community |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/a/ | a | /ã/ | an, a | ||
/e/ | e | /ẽ/ | en, e | ||
/i/ | i | /ĩ/ | in, i | ||
/o/ | o | u | /õ/ | on, o | un, u |
/ɨ/ | u | û | /ɨ̃/ | un, u | ûn, û |
Phonology[edit]
A’ingae has 27 consonants as well as 5 oral monophthongs and 6 oral diphthongs, each with a nasal counterpart which is contrastive. The language is currently considered to have an unknown amount of dialectal variation. It is quite likely that there is some, but no concrete research and evidence has been put forward to make a strong claim either way, warranting further investigation.[6]
Consonants[edit]
The 27 consonant phonemes are listed below in the table with their IPA representations. In A’ingae, there is a three-way, contrastive distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and prenasalized plosives and affricates. There are no such distinctions for fricatives. All consonants can be word-initial, except for /ʔ/ and /ɰ/. Note that glottal stop, although phonologically contrastive, can be realized as creakiness.[6]
Bilabial | Labio- dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive | p ph mb | t th nd | k kh ŋg | ʔ | |||
Affricate | t͡s t͡sh nd͡z | t͡ʃ t͡ʃh nd͡ʒ | |||||
Fricative | f | s | ʃ | h | |||
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ||||
Approximant | ʋ | j | ɰ | ||||
Tap | ɾ |
Vowels[edit]
The 5 oral vowels and their nasal counterparts are listed in the table below with their IPA representation. The 6 diphthongs and their nasal counterparts in IPA representation are the following: [ai]/[ãĩ], [oe]/[õẽ], [oa]/[õã], [oi]/[õĩ], [ɨi]/[ɨ̃ĩ], and [ao]/[ãõ].
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
High | i / ĩ | ɨ / ɨ̃ | |
Mid | e / ẽ | o / õ | |
Low | a / ã |
Diphthongs[edit]
When vowels appear adjacent to one another, they either become a diphthong (for the pairs listed above) or a glide is inserted if a diphthong does not exist for that pair. For example:
- (1) /ho.ʋaʔ.kã.o/ [ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ] (DIST-CMP-AUG) ‘exactly like that’
- (2) /ɲo.tshi.a/ [ɲõ.tshi.ja] (good-QUAL-ADJR) ‘good’
Note that the vowel pair /ae/ is realized as [ai].
Triphthongs do not exist in A’ingae, and glottal stops are inserted phonemically when a sequence of three vowels would occur as in example (1) below.[7]
- (3) /mbia.a/ [bi̯a.ʔa] (long-ADJR) ‘long’
Nasalization[edit]
Nasalization is a major feature of the A’ingae sound system. As already seen, there are contrastive prenasalized consonants as well as contrastive nasal counterparts to all monophthongs and diphthongs. Example (4) below demonstrates their contrasting nature:
- (4a) /hi/ [hi] ‘come’
- (4b) /hĩ/ [hĩ] ‘exist’
Along with being contrastive, nasalization also plays a key phonological role in the surface realization of morphemes, working both backwards and forwards. The consonants /p/, /t/, /ʋ/, and /j/ all become nasalized when following a nasal vowel, becoming /mb/, /nd/, /m/, and /ɲ/, respectively, as in examples (5) and (6).
- (5a) /ha-pa/ [ha.pa] (go-SS) ‘go’
- (5b) /hẽ-pa/ [hẽ.mba] (sound-SS) ‘sound(VERB)
- (6a) /hi-ʔja/ [hiʔ.ja] (come-VER) ‘does come’
- (6b) /hĩ-ʔja/ [hĩʔ.ɲã] (exist-VER) ‘does exist’
Note that nasalization of vowels can cross consonant boundaries when the vowels are separated by a glottal fricative /h/ or glottal stop /ʔ/ (even when a glide is present) as in example (*) above and example (7) below:[7]
- (7a) /tsɨi-ʔhe/ [tsɨiʔ.he] (walk-IPFV) ‘walking’
- (7b) /tsõ-ʔhe/ [tsõʔ.hẽ] (do-IPFV) ‘doing’
Additionally, oral vowels become nasalized when preceding prenasalized consonants and when following nasal consonants, as in examples (8) and (9). They also become nasalized when either preceded or followed by a nasal vowel, as in examples (10) and (11).
- (8) /dɨ.ʃo-nde.khɨ/ [dɨ.ʃõ.nde.khɨ] (child-PLH) ‘children’
- (9) /ɲoɲa-pa/ [ɲõɲã.mba] (make-SS) ‘make’
- (10) /ho.ʋaʔ-kã-o/ [ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ] (DIST-CMP-AUG) ‘exactly like that’
- (11) /bɨtho-ĩ/ [bɨthõĩ] (run-MVM) ‘run’
Syllable Structure[edit]
A’ingae syllable structure is (C)V(ʔ)[6], with many variations thereof. At minimum a syllable can be a singular vowel and at maximum can be consonant onset with a diphthong nucleus and glottal stop coda[7]. Note that vowel length is not a relevant feature in syllable structure. A complete list of the structures allowed is given in the table below with examples for each.[7]
V | [a.ʔi] ‘person’ |
VV | [ãĩ] ‘dog’ |
CV | [tʃã] ‘mother’ |
CVV | [khoa] ‘pumpkin’ |
Vʔ | [iʔ.fa] ‘we/they/you all bring’ |
VVʔ | [aiʔ.ʋo] ‘body’ |
CVʔ | [paʔ.tʃo] ‘dead’ |
CVVʔ | [dʒaiʔ.tʃo] ‘chair’ |
Prosody[edit]
Generally speaking, in the absence of a glottal stop, stress in A’ingae is found on the penultimate syllable as in examples (12a) and (12b). When a glottal stop is present however, stress is found on the syllable with the second mora before the glottal stop (Dąbkowski, 2020), compare examples (13a) and (13b). This is a stress pattern that is currently cross-linguistically unattested.
- (12a) [ˈfe.tha] ‘open’
- (12b) [fe.ˈtha.hi] ‘open-PRCM’
- (13a) [ˈfe.tha.ʔhe] ‘open-IMPV’
- (13b) [fɨn.ˈdɨi.ʔhe] ‘sweep-IMPV’
Stress can in some cases be contrastive, compare (14a) and (14b). (R-L)
- (14a) [ˈnẽ.pi] ‘disappear’
- (14b) [nẽ.ˈpi] ‘arrive’
Morphology[edit]
Morphology in A'ingae consists of stems, clitics, and suffixes.[7] Free stems include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbials, and meteorological stems (such as words for "wind", "rain", and "sun").
Tsetsû
tse=tsû
ANA.LOC=3
thesi
thesi
tiger
na'sûma
na'sû=ma
chief=ACC1
da
da
become
"Then the tiger became the chief."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Tsa
tsa
ANA
sinjûnkhû
sinjûnkhû
valley
rande
rande
big
tsampi
tsampi
forest
sepakhuefa
sepakhue=fa
behind=SH.LAT
"that big valley behind the forest"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Jipa
ji=pa
come=SS
ana
ana
sleep
a'ta
a'ta
day
"After coming (he) slept and dawned (=got up at dawn)"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
While many stems are free, there are also a number of bound stems, which typically express states of being or properties, and are in a class of "flexible stems" by themselves. In the following sentence, bia "long" is one of these bound stems.
Tutufa'khuvetsû
tutu=fa='khu=ve=tsû
white=SH.LAT=SH.ANG=ACC2=3
biaña'fa'ya
bia-ña='fa='ya
long-CAUS=PLS=VER
"They lengthened (the cotton) into white rope."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Beyond stems, A'ingae has both bound suffixes and clitics, specifically enclitics that appear after the stem. There are no known prefixes or proclitics. In glossed content, suffixes are typically notated with a hyphen, and clitics are notated with an equal sign. The language has a very rich inventory of clitics, that can appear either at sentence level or constituent level. Sentence-level clitics occur at second position, meaning they attach to the end of the first word in a sentence, and mark qualities such as subject and sentence type.
Atesûtiki
atesû=ti=ki
know=INT=2
keja
ke=ja
2.SG=CNTR
Secoya
Secoya
Secoya
a'ima
a'i=ma
person=ACC1
"Do you know Secoya people?"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Constituent-level clitics can either attach to the noun phrase or subordinate clause, or to the predicate clause. Clitics in the noun phrase occur in a fixed order, and can mark case, negation, and other grammatical features.
Jingesû
jingesû
HORT2
jaye
ja-ye
go-INF
tsa
tsa
ANA
a'i
a'i
person
cervezama
cerveza=ma
beer=ACC1
chavaenjeni
chava-en-je=ni
buy-CAUS-IMPV=LOC
"Let's go to where that man is selling beer."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Juva
juva
DIST
ña
ña
1.SG
dû'shûndekhû'sû
dû'shû=ndekhû='sû
child=PLH=ATTR
dûshû
dû'shû
child
"those children of my children"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Suffixes also mark certain grammatical features. Some example include sentential type/mood, nominalization, and aspect. Passive, causative, and shape features are also indicated with suffixes.
Jungaesûmatsû
jungaesû=ma=tsû
what=ACC1=3
ñua'me
ñua'me
really
tsetse'pave
tsetse'pa=ve
chicha=ACC2
tsetse'paeñe
tsetse'pa-en-ñe
chicha-CAUS-INF
atseû'fa
atesû='fa
know=PLS
"What did they use to make chicha with?"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Also present in the language is the process of reduplication, which expresses iterative aspect.
Tsunsi
tsun=si
do=DS
chapejuen
chape=ju=en
soften=SH.SFC=ADV
akesi
ake=si
warm.up=DS
kikhûkhûpa
kikhû~khû=pa
hurl~ITER=SS
"Then they cook and when they're warmed up, we crush them."
(From the "A'ingae Language Documentation Project" website[9])
Inflectional Template[edit]
Clitics and suffixes in the language have a relatively fixed order of how they will attach to a verb or predicate phrase. A template of that order is shown in the table below.
Pronouns[edit]
Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|
First person | ña "I, my" | ingi "we, our" |
Second person | ke "you, your" | ke'i "you all, your" |
Third person | tise "he/she/it, his/her/its" | tisepa "they, their" |
First person | =ngi |
Second person | =ki |
Third person | =tsû |
Syntax[edit]
Constituent order in matrix clauses in A'ingae is relatively flexible, with SOV (or SO-predicate) considered basic.[7] In embedded clauses, word order is more rigidly SOV/SOPred. Clauses must minimally consist of a predicate.
A'i
a'i
person
manima
mani=ma
peanut=ACC
isû
isû
take
"The people took the peanuts"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Amûndetshive
amûnde=tshi=ve
dirty=ADJ=ACC2
tsun'faya
tsun='fa=ya
do=PLS=IRR
"We'll make it dirty"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Chavangi
chava=ngi
buy=1
fûesû
fûesû
other
simba'khuma
simba'khu=ma
fishing.hook=ACC1
"I bought a different fishing hook."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Kanjen
kanjen
stay
"He stayed."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Subordinate clauses are strictly predicate-final.
Ñaja
ña=ja
I=CNTR
asithaengi
asithaen=ngi
think=1
kinikhuve
[kinikhu=ve
tree-ACC2
daye
da-ye]
become-INF
"I think I'll become a tree."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Case and Alignment[edit]
Case markers are constituent-level clitics.[7]
Tayupija
tayupi=ja
former=CNTR
charapa
charapa
charapa.turtle
dû'sûchuve
dû'sûche=ve
egg=ACC2
kajeni
kaje=ni
downriver=LOC
jaje'fa'ya
ja-je='fa='ya
go-IMPV=PLS=VER
"In earlier times they used to go downriver for charapa eggs."
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
The full list of case markers is shown below.
=ma | ACC1 | accusative 1 |
=ve/=me | ACC2 | accusative 2 |
=mbe | BEN | benefactive |
=i'khû | INST | instrument |
=pi | LIM | limitative |
=ni | LOC | locative |
=ngae | MANN | manner, path |
=ne | ABL | ablative |
Note that there are two accusative case markers. Accusative 2 typically is used in negative sentences or when the P-argument is not yet present or does not exist, in contexts of expressing desire, causation, or creation.
Sentences follow a nominative-accusative pattern. A'ingae displays optional agreement--optional agreement in person using second position clitics, and optional agreement in number using the clitic ='fa--both of which agree with the subject argument. Within the noun phrase, there is no agreement.
Sentence Type[edit]
A'ingae distinguishes between several different sentence types.[7] These distinctions are indicated using different morphosyntactic strategies. Declarative sentences can contain the optional veridical clitic ='ya. There are several imperative types, depending on what speech act is being performed, using either the imperative clitics =ja or ='se or the diminutive suffix ='kha. There is a distinction between yes/no interrogative and content interrogative sentences, with the former using the interrogative clitic =ti and the latter using the indeterminate/interrogative wh-word in the initial position (jungaesû ("what"), maki ("when"), mani ("where"), majan ("which"), mikun ("why"), mingae ("how")). Exhortative sentences use the hortative particle jinge. Prohibitive sentences use the clitic =jama. Below are some examples of these sentence types.
Assertive/Declarative[edit]
Tsumbate
tsun=pa=te
do=SS=RPRT
tsa
tsa
ANA
tisema
tise=ma
3.SG=ACC
se'jepa
se'je=pa
cure=SS
"They cured him"
(From the "A'ingae Language Documentation Project" website[9])
Setsanetatsû
setsa=ne=ta=tsû
low=ABL=NEW=3
ji'fa'ya
ji='fa='ya
come=PLS=VER
"They came from down river"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Imperative[edit]
Tsa'kaen
tsa='ka=en
ANA=CMP=ADV
tsunja
tsun=ja
do=IMP
"Do it like that!"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Me'in
me'in
no
kanse
kan='se
look=IMP3
"Don't look (you shouldn't look)"
(From the "A'ingae Language Documentation Project" website[9])
Injan'fakha
injan='fa=kha
think=PLS=DMN
"Mind you!/Just be careful!"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Yes/no-Interrogative[edit]
Fûesûti
fûesû=ti
other=INT
jin
jin
exist
"Is there another one?"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Content Interrogative[edit]
Majantsû
majan=tsû
which=3
ka'nia
ka'ni-a
enter-CAUS
"Who let you in?"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Exhortative[edit]
Jinge
jinge
HORT
juvanga
juva=nga
DIST2=DAT
jaye
ja-ye
go-INF
"Let's go over there"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Prohibitive[edit]
Anthejama
anthe=jama
let.go=PRHB
chigane
chigane
please
"Don't let it go please!"
(From Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees[7])
Useful Words and Phrases[edit]
A'ingae | English gloss |
---|---|
kase'te | hello (morning) |
kuse kuse | hello (evening) |
jû | yes |
me'in | no |
dasû | OK; goodbye |
Mingae ki | How are you? |
Chiga tsû afepuenjan | Thank you (lit. "May God pay you") |
Pañambingi | I don't understand |
Ñutshi tsû | That's good; good |
Chigai'khû | Goodbye (lit. "God with you") |
Junguesû tsû? | What is this? |
Majan tsû? | Who is it? |
Junguesû inise ki? | What is your name? |
Ña inise tsû ____. | My name is ____. |
kûi'khû | banana drink |
tsa'u | house |
a'i | person; Cofán person |
ña; aña'chu | meat |
na'e | river |
panzaye | to hunt |
khuvû | moon |
kue'je | sun |
Further reading[edit]
- Dąbkowski, Maksymilian. 2021. A’ingae (Ecuador and Colombia) - Language Snapshot. Language Documentation and Description 20, 1-12.
- Baldauf, R. B., Kaplan, R. B., King, K. A., & Haboud, M. (2007). Language planning and policy in Latin America: Language Planning and Policy in Ecuador (Vol. 1). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
- Borman, M. B. (1962). "Cofan phonemes". In Elson, Benjamin; Peeke, Catherine (eds.). Studies in Ecuadorian Indian languages: I. SIL International Publications in Linguistics. pp. 45–59. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
- Borman, M. B. (1976). Vocabulario cofán: Cofán-castellano, castellano-cofán. (Serie de vocabularios indígenas Mariano Silva y Aceves, 19). Quito: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Borman, M. B. (1977). "Cofan paragraph structure and function". SIL International Publications in Linguistics. 52 (3): 289–338. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
- Borman, M. B. (1990). Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends: The Cofan Alphabet. Quito, Ecuador: Instituto Linguistico de Verano.[10]
- Cofán. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from https://www.ethnologue.com/language/con[11]
- Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Cofán". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- Gijn, E. V., Haude, K., & Muysken, P. (2011). Subordination in native South-American languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.[3]
- Klein, H. E., & Stark, L. R. (2011). South American Indian languages: retrospect and prospect. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015). Ethnologue: Languages of Ecuador (PDF) (Report) (18th ed.). pp. 11–21. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
References[edit]
- ^ Cofán at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
- ^ Fischer, R. W. (2007). "Clause linkage in Cofán (A'ingae), a language of the Ecuadorian-Colombian border region". Language endangerment and endangered languages: linguistic and anthropological studies with special emphasis on the languages and cultures of the Andean-Amazonian border area. Indigenous Languages of Latin America (ILLA). 5. Leiden: CNWS Publications. pp. 381–399. hdl:11245/1.277948.
- ^ a b c d Gijn, Rik van; Haude, Katharina; Muysken, Pieter (2011-04-29). Subordination in Native South American Languages. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027287090.
- ^ "Cofán". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2017-08-23.
- ^ a b c Dąbkowski, Maksymilian (2021). "A'ingae (Ecuador and Colombia) - Language Snapshot". Language Documentation and Description. 20: 1–12.
- ^ a b c d e Repetti-Ludlow, Chiara; Zhang, Haoru; Lucitante, Hugo; AnderBois, Scott; Sanker, Chelsea (December 2020). "A'ingae (Cofán)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 50 (3): 431–444. doi:10.1017/S0025100319000082. ISSN 0025-1003. S2CID 198596111.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Fischer, Rafael and Hengeveld, Kees. "A'ingae (Cofán/Kofán)". unpublished.
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