Outline of classical music

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Russian composer Alexander Scriabin playing the piano in concert, by Robert Sterl (1910)

Classical musicArt music of the Western world, considered to be distinct from Western folk music or popular music traditions.

History of classical music[edit]

A musical era or period refers to a distinct time frame in the history of music characterized by specific styles, practices, and conventions. Each period reflects the cultural, social, and political contexts of its time. The following is an overview of the stylistic movements within each period.

Early music[edit]

  • Medieval (c. 500 – c. 1400) – Period characterized by the development of early music notation systems and a strong emphasis on vocal music. Sacred music like Gregorian chant and various other religious and non-religious styles were developed during this time.
  • Renaissance (c. 1400 – c. 1600) – Period characterized by the development of polyphony and a richer use of harmony and melody. Genres like the Mass, motet, and madrigal were developed during this time.

Common practice period[edit]

  • Baroque (c. 1600 – c. 1750) – Period characterized by the development of tonality and a greater emphasis on contrast and ornamentation in music. Genres like the opera, cantata, oratorio, and concerto were developed during this time.
  • Classical (c. 1730 – c. 1820) – Period characterized by a shift towards clarity, balance, and structure in music, emphasizing melodic expression and symmetrical forms. Genres like the symphony, sonata, and string quartet were developed during this time.
  • Romantic (c. 1800 – c. 1910) – Period characterized by a focus on emotional expression, individualism, and breaking away from the strict forms of the Classical era featuring more expansive and expressive compositions. Previous genres such as the symphony and opera were enhanced and also new genres such as the art song, nocturne and symphonic poem were developed.

20th and 21st century[edit]

Composers[edit]

A composer is a person who writes music. This is a list of significant composers organized in chronological order within each period.

  • Medieval composers
Notker the StammererAdémar de ChabannesAdam of Saint VictorHildegard of BingenLéoninPérotinPhilippe de VitryGuillaume de MachautJohannes Ciconia
  • Renaissance composers
Guillaume Du FayGilles BinchoisJohannes OckeghemAlexander AgricolaJacob ObrechtJosquin des PrezAntoine BrumelNicolas GombertJohn TavernerCristóbal de MoralesThomas TallisGiovanni Pierluigi da PalestrinaFrancisco GuerreroOrlando di LassoWilliam ByrdTomás Luis de VictoriaGiovanni GabrieliCarlo GesualdoJohn DowlandJacopo PeriClaudio MonteverdiOrlando Gibbons
  • Baroque composers
Heinrich SchützFrancesco CavalliGiacomo CarissimiBarbara StrozziJean-Baptiste LullyMarc-Antoine CharpentierDieterich BuxtehudeJohann PachelbelArcangelo CorelliHenry PurcellAlessandro ScarlattiFrançois CouperinAntonio CaldaraTomaso AlbinoniAntonio VivaldiJan Dismas ZelenkaGeorg Philipp TelemannJean-Philippe RameauJohann Sebastian BachDomenico ScarlattiGeorge Frideric HandelGiuseppe TartiniGiovanni Battista PergolesiDomenico Scarlatti
  • Classical composers
Christoph Willibald GluckCarl Philipp Emanuel BachJohann StamitzGiovanni PaisielloLuigi BoccheriniDomenico CimarosaAntonio SalieriMuzio ClementiVicente Martín y SolerWolfgang Amadeus MozartLuigi CherubiniLudwig van BeethovenJohann Nepomuk Hummel
  • Romantic and Late-Romantic composers
Ludwig van BeethovenJohn FieldNiccolò PaganiniCarl Maria von WeberGiacomo MeyerbeerGioachino RossiniFranz SchubertGaetano DonizettiVincenzo BelliniMikhail GlinkaHector BerliozJohann Strauss IFanny MendelssohnFelix MendelssohnFrédéric ChopinRobert SchumannFranz LisztRichard WagnerCharles-Valentin AlkanGiuseppe VerdiCharles GounodJacques OffenbachFranz von SuppéClara SchumannCésar FranckÉdouard LaloBedřich SmetanaAnton BrucknerJohann Strauss IIJohannes BrahmsAmilcare PonchielliCésar CuiCamille Saint-SaënsLéo DelibesMily BalakirevMax BruchGeorges BizetModest MussorgskyPyotr Ilyich TchaikovskyAntonín DvořákEdvard GriegNikolai Rimsky-KorsakovPablo de SarasateGabriel FauréLeoš JanáčekEdward ElgarGiacomo PucciniEugène YsaÿeGustav MahlerIsaac AlbénizRichard StraussCarl NielsenJean SibeliusEnrique GranadosAmy BeachFranz LehárAlexander ScriabinSergei RachmaninoffOttorino RespighiNikolai MedtnerRalph Vaughan WilliamsGustav Holst
  • Modernist, 20th and 21st century composers
Claude DebussyErik SatieArnold SchoenbergCharles IvesMaurice RavelManuel de FallaBéla BartókZoltán KodályIgor StravinskyAnton WebernAlban BergHeitor Villa-LobosSergei ProkofievPaul HindemithCarl OrffGeorge GershwinFrancis PoulencAaron CoplandWilliam WaltonAram KhachaturianDmitri ShostakovichOlivier MessiaenSamuel BarberJohn CageBenjamin BrittenWitold LutosławskiHenri DutilleuxAlberto GinasteraLeonard BernsteinIannis XenakisGyörgy LigetiLuigi NonoLuciano BerioPierre BoulezGyörgy KurtágKarlheinz StockhausenEinojuhani RautavaaraHenryk GóreckiAlfred SchnittkeArvo PärtPhilip GlassJohn CoriglianoJohn Adams
From left to right: Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven. Their evolving hairstyles mirror the stylistic transitions in their music, from the structured complexity of the Baroque, through the balanced elegance of the Classical, to the emphasis on emotional expression of the Romantic era.

Composition schools[edit]

A composition school is a group of composers or a style of composition shared by a group of composers, often from the same area or who studied in the same place. These are some significant schools organized by period.

  • Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque schools
    • Notre-Dame School – Pioneered polyphonic music, with key composers being Léonin and Pérotin.
    • Franco-Flemish School – Developed polyphony in vocal music, prominent composers include Guillaume Dufay, Johannes Ockeghem and Josquin des Prez.
    • Roman School – Focused on the development of Church music, with composers like Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Tomás Luis de Victoria.
    • Venetian School – Developed the Venetian polychoral style and played a crucial role in the early development of the Baroque style, with composers like Giovanni Gabrieli.
    • Neapolitan School – Crucial to the development of Italian opera, with figures like Alessandro Scarlatti, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi and Domenico Cimarosa.
  • Classical and Romantic schools
    • Mannheim School – Known for innovations in orchestral music, influencing the Classical style, with composers like Johann Stamitz.
    • First Viennese School – Developed and refined forms such as the symphony, sonata, string quartet and expanded the harmonic language of the time. The main composers were Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven.
    • The Five – Group of Russian composers that created a distinct Russian national style of music. It was led by Mily Balakirev and included César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Borodin.
    • New German School – Emphasized programmatic themes and dramatic expressiveness with composers like Richard Wagner and Franz Liszt.
    • Giovane scuola – Focused on the development of verismo in opera, with composers like Giacomo Puccini, Pietro Mascagni and Ruggero Leoncavallo.
  • 20th and 21st century schools
    • English Pastoral School – Characterized by its incorporation of Tudor music and English folk elements to evoke the English countryside, creating a distinctively national style of classical music. Notable figures include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Gustav Holst and Gerald Finzi.
    • Second Viennese School – Pioneered atonality and later developed the twelve-tone serial technique, breaking away from traditional tonality. The main figures were Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg and Anton Webern.
    • Darmstadt School – Focused on avant-garde techniques, with figures like Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen.

Compositions[edit]

A musical composition is a structured work or piece of music. It can range from simple melodies to complex pieces for various instruments or voices.

Purpose of music[edit]

The purpose of music refers to the fundamental reason or intention behind the creation and performance of a musical composition.

  • Absolute or Programmatic
    • Absolute – Music not intended to represent or illustrate something else. Self-contained and not explicitly about anything outside the music itself.
    • Programmatic – Music intended to evoke images or convey the impression of events, stories, or natural scenes.
  • Religious or Secular
    • Religious – Music composed for religious purposes. If it's composed for use in religious rituals and ceremonies it's liturgical music.
    • Secular – Music composed for non-religious purposes.

Genre[edit]

The genre is a broad term that refers to a category of composition characterized by a distinctive style, form, or content. These genres have evolved over time, reflecting changes in musical tastes, compositional techniques, and cultural contexts. These are some typical genres of each period.

  • Medieval and Renaissance genres
Gregorian chantMotetMadrigalRicercar
  • Baroque genres
CanonCantataChaconneConcerto grossoFugueOperaOratorioSuiteToccata
  • Classical, Romantic, 20th and 21st century genres
BalladeConcertoÉtudeFantasiaLiedMassMarchNocturneOperaRhapsodySonataString quartetSymphonic poemSymphony

Tonality and key[edit]

Tonality in music refers to the system of organizing musical compositions around a central pitch or tonic, defining the hierarchy of pitches and chords that gives music its sense of direction and resolution. The key of a piece indicates the specific scale that forms the basis of its tonal structure. They both define the harmonic and melodic framework of a musical composition.

  • Major Tonality – Music based on a major scale, often characterized by a bright, happy, or triumphant mood.
  • Minor Tonality – Music based on a minor scale, often conveying a melancholic, dark or introspective mood.
  • Modal Music – Music that employs modes that differ from conventional major and minor scales, prevalent in Western music before the widespread adoption of the major-minor tonality system.
  • Polytonality – Simultaneous use of two or more tonalities or keys.
  • Atonality – Music without a key or tonal focal point.

Form[edit]

The form refers the structural aspects of the composition, the way its individual sections are constructed and how they relate to each other. These are some common forms.

Binary formTernary formStrophic formRondo formSonata formArch formCyclic form

Texture[edit]

Texture refers to the way different melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic elements are combined in a composition.

Tempo[edit]

Also known as beats per minute, it's the speed or pace of a given composition. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece, often using conventional Italian, French or German terms.

Common tempo markings, from slow to fast:

Italian: LargoAdagioLentoAndanteModeratoAllegroVivacePresto
French: GraveLentModéréVifViteRapide
German: LangsamLebhaftMäßigRaschSchnell

Metre and rhythm[edit]

In music, metre refers to the recurring pattern of beats providing a structured framework, while rhythm is the arrangement of notes and rests within this framework, creating the distinctive flow and character of a piece.

Other composition related concepts[edit]

Cataloging methods[edit]

  • Opus number – Number assigned to a composition or set of compositions to indicate the chronological order of composition or publication of a composer's pieces. Can be unreliable as some numbers were assigned posthumously and also some composers did not use opus numbers at all.
  • Catalogues of classical compositions – Systematic listings of a composer's compositions, often organized in chronological order. Typically created by musicologists or scholars specializing in a particular composer's works. For example, Johann Sebastian Bach's works were catalogued in the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV) by Wolfgang Schmieder.

Sections and other musical concepts[edit]

  • Movement – Self-contained part of a composition.
  • Subject – Musical material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a composition is based.
  • Exposition – Initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition or movement.
  • Development – Section following the exposition where the thematic material is elaborated, expanded, and transformed.
  • Recapitulation – Section where the initial themes introduced in the exposition return, following the development section.
  • Coda – Final section of a piece or movement.
  • CadenzaOrnamental section of a piece played or sung by a soloist or soloists, often allowing virtuosic display.
  • Motif – Short musical idea or recurring figure.
    • Leitmotif – Short, recurring musical figure associated with a particular person, place, or idea.

Miscellaneous[edit]

  • Musical cryptogram – Sequence of musical symbols which refers to an extra-musical text, usually between note names and letters.
    • BACH motif – Succession of notes 'B flat, A, C, B natural' which in German musical nomenclature form J. S. Bach's name.
    • DSCH motif – Succession of notes 'D, E-flat, C, B natural' which in German musical nomenclature form Dmitri Shostakovich's name.
  • Stile antico – Also known as "prima practica", it refers to a composition style from the 16th century.
  • Stile moderno – Also known as "seconda pratica", it refers to a composition style from the early Baroque period that contrasts with the traditional stille antico.
  • Musica reservata – Style in a cappella vocal music of the latter half of the 16th century.

Performance of classical music[edit]

The execution of classical music involves an interpretation of the written score and materializes through the performance of musicians.

Musicians[edit]

A musician is a person who composes, conducts, or performs music.

Instrumentalists[edit]

An instrumentalist is a musician who specializes in playing musical instruments.

  • Orchestra – Large group of instrumentalists, typically consisting of string, woodwind, brass, and percussion sections.
  • Ensemble – Small group of instrumentalists, such as quartets or chamber music ensembles.
  • Soloist – Individual performer who plays a solo instrument.

Vocalists[edit]

A vocalist or singer is a musician who uses their voice as their primary instrument. They are commonly classified in voice types according to the vocal range.

  • Female main voice types
ContraltoMezzo-sopranoSoprano
  • Male main voice types
BassBaritoneTenorCountertenor
  • Choir – Musical ensemble of singers.

Other roles[edit]

  • Conductor – Individual who leads ensembles and orchestras, interpreting the music and guiding the musicians during performances.
  • Baton – Stick that is used by conductors primarily to enlarge and enhance the manual and bodily movements associated with directing.
  • Concertmaster – Leading violinist in an orchestra who plays solo passages and assists the conductor in leading.
  • Kapellmeister – Historically, it indicated the music director in cathedrals or for monarchs, with the term evolving to denote leaders of smaller musical groups.
  • Page-turner – Person employed to turn sheet music pages for a soloist during a performance.

Instruments[edit]

A musical instrument is a device created or adapted to make musical sounds. Instruments can be categorized based on how they produce sound.

Double bassCelloViolaViolin
GuitarHarpLuteHarpsichord
  • Struck string instruments – Instruments that produce sound by striking strings, either with hammers or other mechanisms.
ClavichordPiano
Typical classical orchestra layout
  • Aerophones – Instruments that produce sound primarily by causing a body of air to vibrate, without the use of strings or membranes and without the vibration of the instrument itself adding considerably to the sound.
    • Woodwind instruments – Instruments that produce sound by splitting the air blown into them on a sharp edge, such as a reed or a fipple. Despite the name, a woodwind may be made of any material, not just wood.
ContrabassoonBassoonBass clarinetClarinetCor anglaisOboeTransverse fluteRecorderPiccoloSaxophone
TubaEuphoniumTromboneFrench hornTrumpetCornet
  • Other aerophones
OrganAccordion
  • Membranophones and idiophones – Instruments that produce sound primarily by way of a vibrating stretched membrane or by the vibration of the instrument itself. Typically part of the percussion section of an orchestra.
TimpaniSnare drumBass drumTambourineCymbalTriangleXylophoneGlockenspielMarimbaVibraphoneTubular bellsGongCelestaGlass harmonica
  • Electrophones – Instruments that produce sound primarily through electrical means.
ThereminOndes MartenotTrautoniumSynthesizerSampler

Other concepts[edit]

  • Historically informed performance – This approach aims to perform music in a style and manner faithful to the era in which it was composed, often using period instruments and techniques derived from historical research to closely align with the composer's original intent.
  • Concert pitch – It's the pitch reference to which a group of musical instruments are tuned for a performance. Concert pitch may vary from ensemble to ensemble, and has varied widely over time.

Classical music industry[edit]

Buildings[edit]

  • Concert hall – Building with a stage that serves as a performance venue. These are some significant concert halls.
MusikvereinRoyal ConcertgebouwBerliner PhilharmonieCarnegie HallRoyal Albert HallBoston Symphony HallSuntory HallElbphilharmonie
The interior of Teatro alla Scala, Milan
La ScalaLa FeniceTeatro di San CarloBayreuth FestspielhausStaatsoper BerlinOpéra BastilleOpéra-ComiquePalais GarnierLa MonnaieWiener StaatsoperLiceuRoyal Opera HouseSydney Opera HouseTeatro ColónMetropolitan Opera HouseWar Memorial Opera HouseCivic Opera House

Events[edit]

Salzburg FestivalBayreuth FestivalLucerne FestivalGlyndebourne FestivalVerbier FestivalBBC PromsAix-en-Provence FestivalEdinburgh International FestivalBachfest Leipzig
BBC Proms in the Royal Albert Hall, 2004
  • Music competition – Public event designed to identify and award outstanding musicians. These are some significant competitions.
Queen Elisabeth CompetitionInternational Tchaikovsky CompetitionVan Cliburn International Piano CompetitionInternational Chopin Piano CompetitionARD International Music CompetitionGeneva International Music CompetitionPaganini Competition

Recordings and publications[edit]

  • Classical music record labelRecord label that specializes in recording, producing, and distributing classical music. These are some significant record labels.
Deutsche GrammophonEMI ClassicsSony ClassicalDeccaHyperion RecordsNaxosHarmonia MundiChandos
  • Publications and academic journals

Awards[edit]

  • Recording awards – Awards that specifically recognize achievements in the recorded format. These are some significant awards.
Diapason d'OrEcho KlassikClassic Brit AwardsInternational Classical Music AwardsGrammy Awards for classical music
  • Other awards – Awards that recognize other achievements such as live performances, compositions, lifetime achievements or other contributions. These are some significant awards.
Royal Philharmonic Society Music AwardsLéonie Sonning Music PrizeErnst von Siemens Music PrizePraemium ImperialeGrawemeyer Award for Music CompositionGilmore Artist AwardBach PrizeHindemith PrizeAvery Fisher Prize

Education and promotion[edit]

International Society for Music EducationThe Royal Conservatory of MusicJuilliard SchoolRoyal Academy of MusicConservatoire de ParisCurtis Institute of MusicMoscow ConservatoryRoyal College of MusicSibelius Academy
String gallery in the Royal Academy of Music Museum
  • MuseumsMuseums dedicated to the preservation and exhibition of classical music-related history. These are some significant museums.
Royal Academy of Music MuseumBasel Music MuseumBrussels Musical Instrument MuseumMusée de la MusiqueHaus der MusikMozarthaus ViennaArnold Schönberg CenterAntonín Dvořák MuseumCarl Nielsen MuseumAinolaBerlin Musical Instrument MuseumBeethoven HouseVilla VerdiVilla PucciniFryderyk Chopin Museum
  • Other organizations
Royal Philharmonic SocietyAmerican Composers ForumLeague of American OrchestrasIndependent Society of Musicians

Other media[edit]

  • FilmsFilms about classical music and musicians. These are some significant films.
Casta Diva (1935)Fantasia (1940)Falstaff in Vienna (1940)Rhapsody in Blue (1945)Humoresque (1946)The Chronicle of Anna Magdalena Bach (1968)The Music Lovers (1971)Amadeus (1984)Impromptu (1991)Tous les Matins du Monde (1991)Immortal Beloved (1994)Farinelli (1994)Hilary and Jackie (1998)Fantasia 2000 (1999)The Pianist (2002)Copying Beethoven (2006)Coco Chanel & Igor Stravinsky (2009)A Late Quartet (2012)The Devil's Violinist (2013)Tár (2022)Maestro (2023)

Other classical music related concepts[edit]

Classical music in society[edit]

Musicology[edit]

Miscellaneous[edit]

Classical music by region[edit]

Africa

EgyptNigeriaSouth Africa

Asia

ArmeniaAzerbaijanChinaCyprusHong KongIsraelJapanMongoliaSingaporeSouth KoreaSri LankaTurkeyVietnam

Europe

AlbaniaAustriaBelgiumBosnia and HerzegovinaBulgariaCroatiaDenmarkFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyKosovoLatviaLithuaniaLuxembourgNorth MacedoniaNorwayMonacoMontenegroNetherlandsPolandPortugalRomaniaRussiaSerbiaSloveniaSpainSwedenUnited Kingdom (Birmingham, Scotland) • UkraineVatican City

North America

CanadaCubaGuatemalaMexicoPuerto RicoUnited States

Oceania

AustraliaNew Zealand

South America

ArgentinaBrazil (Porto Alegre) • ChileParaguayTrinidad and TobagoUruguayVenezuela

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  • Swafford, Jan (1992). The Vintage Guide to Classical Music. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-72805-4.